As humanity sets its sights on establishing a permanent presence on the Moon, careful planning and execution of lunar base surface operations become paramount. A 1987 study by Eagle Engineering, Inc. for the NASA Johnson Space Center shed light on the complexities and challenges associated with setting up and maintaining a human-tended lunar base, focusing on the period from the first crewed landing to the base’s transition into a permanently crewed outpost.
Published over three decades ago, this study provides valuable insights that remain relevant today as NASA prepares to return humans to the lunar surface through the Artemis program. By examining the findings and recommendations of this study, we can gain a better understanding of the key considerations and strategies for successful lunar base operations.
The Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and next man on the Moon by 2025, has reignited interest in lunar exploration and the establishment of a sustainable human presence on the lunar surface. As NASA and its international partners work towards this goal, the lessons learned from past studies, such as the 1987 Eagle Engineering report, can inform the design and planning of future lunar missions and infrastructure.
Scenario Definition and Methodology
The study began by defining a baseline scenario, drawing from the civil needs database (CNDB) and other government and contractor reports. This scenario included goals, expected benefits, assumptions, surface elements, science experiments, flight schedules, and surface element deployment options. The next step involved identifying major surface operations associated with the scenario and estimating extravehicular activity (EVA) and intravehicular activity (IVA) crew time requirements. A crew manning schedule was developed, including available resources to support surface operations, allowing for a comparison of available and required crew hours to fulfill mission objectives.
Groundrules and Assumptions
Several key assumptions were made prior to the study, including the absence of water ice or other volatiles at the lunar poles, the ability to teleoperate routine tasks from Earth or the lunar base, and a maximum lunar landing flight rate that increases over time. The study also assumed that achieving objectives in human presence, science, resource development, technology development, and politics during Phase II is important for generating broad-based support for the lunar base program.
Lunar Base Description
The study focused on a single, fixed base located at Lacus Veris, a limb site near Orientale with farside access. The base evolves through three stages: establishing a human-tended base, maintaining a human-tended base, and transitioning to permanent occupancy. The scenario developed for the study includes a 6-year period of human-tended lunar base operation prior to permanent occupancy, with an emphasis on achieving a limited set of science and exploration objectives while emplacing the minimum habitability elements required for a permanent base.
Base Evolution and Expansion
The lunar base scenario begins with short-duration missions using the crewed module attached to the lunar lander as the primary habitat. As the base expands, additional surface elements are delivered and deployed, including a solar flare radiation shelter, habitation module, interface node, airlock, power system, thermal control system, and communications relay station. These elements enable longer crew stay times and support the transition to a permanently occupied base.
The study also considered the expansion of the base beyond the initial Phase II configuration. This includes the addition of more habitation and laboratory modules, increased power generation capacity, and the development of in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) capabilities. The long-term vision for the base involves supporting a larger permanent crew, conducting more advanced scientific research, and serving as a testbed for technologies and systems needed for future Mars missions.
In the context of the Artemis program, the lunar base expansion plan may be accelerated to align with the program’s goals and timeline. The Artemis program aims to establish a sustainable human presence on the Moon by 2028, which may require a more rapid deployment of surface elements and infrastructure compared to the original 1987 study scenario. Additionally, the Artemis program places a greater emphasis on the utilization of lunar resources and the development of ISRU technologies, which could influence the prioritization and sequencing of surface element deployment.
Lunar Base Operations
Surface operations are carried out from the crewed module attached to the lunar lander during the early missions, resembling Apollo Lunar Module operations. As the base grows, the operations center shifts to the base itself, and stay times increase after the deployment of key surface elements.
Mission Operations
Detailed mission operations were developed for each crewed mission in the scenario, including tasks such as site preparation, module emplacement, utility setup, science experiments, resource utilization, and logistics and maintenance support. The study emphasized the importance of careful planning and coordination of these activities to ensure the efficient use of crew time and resources.
Crew Scheduling and Time Allocation
Crew shift schedules were formulated based on Space Shuttle guidelines and Space Station crew plans, considering factors such as workday cycles, sleep cycles, and EVA constraints. Time allocations for operational tasks were determined, revealing the limited EVA time available for surface operations after accounting for sleep, meals, personal time, spacecraft housekeeping, and systems monitoring.
The study found that crew time, especially EVA time, is a critical resource that must be carefully managed to maximize productivity and minimize risk. Strategies for optimizing crew time allocation include the use of automation and robotics to perform routine or hazardous tasks, the careful scheduling of activities to avoid conflicts and overloading, and the cross-training of crew members to provide flexibility and redundancy.
Extravehicular Activities
EVA is a hazardous activity, and the study emphasized the importance of identifying teleoperation or robotic solutions whenever possible. Estimates were made for the intravehicular time required to service and support each extravehicular mission, with approximately 4 hours of IVA needed for every 6 hours of EVA per crew member.
The study also considered the design and development of advanced EVA systems and technologies to improve safety, efficiency, and productivity. This includes the use of advanced spacesuits with improved mobility and life support systems, the development of robotic assistants to aid in EVA tasks, and the use of virtual reality and augmented reality technologies for training and mission support.
Landing/Launch Operations
The study addressed operational considerations for landing/launch sites, including site preparation and cargo handling. Permanent landing pads may not be necessary for the expendable landers used during Phase II, but preparations must be made to transition to reusable single-stage landers in Phase III.
The study also considered the development of advanced landing and launch technologies to improve safety and reduce costs. This includes the use of precision landing systems, autonomous hazard avoidance, and advanced propulsion technologies such as electric propulsion and nuclear thermal propulsion.
In the context of the Artemis program, the development of a sustainable lunar landing and launch infrastructure is a key priority. This includes the establishment of multiple landing sites to support both crewed and uncrewed missions, as well as the development of reusable landers and ascent vehicles to reduce the cost and complexity of lunar transportation. The Artemis program also places a greater emphasis on the use of commercial partnerships and international collaboration in the development and operation of lunar surface systems.
Construction and Assembly Operations
Emplacing pressurized surface modules is a key surface operation, and the study explored options for emplacing buried modules, the potential role of teleoperated/robotic construction operations, and the methodology used to estimate module emplacement times. Providing adequate radiation protection for the crew is a major challenge, and various techniques for covering modules with regolith were considered.
The study also considered the development of advanced construction technologies and techniques to improve the speed, safety, and efficiency of lunar base assembly. This includes the use of 3D printing and in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) to construct habitats and other structures using local materials, the development of modular and expandable habitat designs, and the use of robotic systems for site preparation and construction tasks.
Under the Artemis program, the construction and assembly of lunar surface habitats and infrastructure will likely involve a greater degree of automation and robotic assistance compared to the 1987 study scenario. Advances in 3D printing, ISRU technologies, and autonomous robotic systems over the past few decades have opened up new possibilities for lunar construction and assembly operations. The Artemis program also emphasizes the importance of developing a sustainable and scalable lunar infrastructure that can support long-term human presence and exploration.
Science Operations
Lunar base science evolves with progressively more complex missions during Phase II, with many missions deployed and/or operated independently of the base to allow allocation of more crew time to base building. Major science missions include lunar science/field geology, geophysical network stations, a geochemistry/materials lab, life sciences labs, an optical interferometer, farside telescopes, crater dating, and deep drilling.
The study emphasized the importance of integrating science objectives with exploration and resource development goals to maximize the value of the lunar base program. This includes the use of the Moon as a platform for conducting fundamental scientific research, as well as the development of technologies and techniques that can be applied to future Mars missions and other deep space destinations.
Under the Artemis program, lunar science operations will be closely integrated with the exploration and resource development activities on the lunar surface. The program aims to leverage the unique capabilities of the Moon as a scientific platform to advance our understanding of the solar system, the universe, and the origin and evolution of life. The Artemis science program will involve a diverse range of scientific investigations, including lunar geology, geophysics, astrobiology, and astronomy, among others.
Resource Utilization Operations
The study assumed that resource utilization will focus on oxygen extraction from ilmenite, with a pilot plant verifying the process before transitioning to a full-scale production plant. Ilmenite mine site selection, plant operations, and oxygen refueling operations were considered.
The study also considered the potential for other ISRU applications, such as the extraction of water from lunar regolith, the production of metals and other materials for construction and manufacturing, and the use of lunar resources for propellant production. The development of ISRU capabilities is seen as a key enabler for long-term lunar exploration and the eventual establishment of a self-sustaining lunar economy.
The Artemis program places a strong emphasis on the development and demonstration of ISRU technologies and capabilities on the lunar surface. The program aims to establish a sustainable presence on the Moon by utilizing local resources to support human exploration and reduce the reliance on Earth-based supplies. The Artemis ISRU strategy includes the extraction of oxygen and water from lunar regolith, the production of propellants and other consumables, and the development of lunar manufacturing capabilities using local materials.
Logistics and Maintenance Support Activities
Logistics and maintenance support activities were analyzed for 8-day, 24-day, and 180-day surface stays, with a focus on preventive and corrective maintenance, spares provisioning, and consumables resupply.
The study emphasized the importance of developing a robust and resilient logistics and maintenance system to support long-duration lunar missions. This includes the use of advanced inventory management and tracking systems, the development of standardized interfaces and modular components to facilitate maintenance and repair, and the use of 3D printing and other advanced manufacturing technologies to produce spare parts and tools on-demand.
Under the Artemis program, logistics and maintenance support for lunar surface operations will be a critical factor in ensuring the success and sustainability of long-term human presence on the Moon. The program aims to establish a robust and efficient logistics infrastructure that can support both crewed and uncrewed missions, as well as the ongoing maintenance and repair of surface systems and infrastructure. This will involve the development of advanced logistics management systems, the use of autonomous and robotic systems for cargo handling and delivery, and the implementation of predictive maintenance strategies to minimize downtime and ensure the reliability of critical systems.
Man/Machine Division of Labor
The study proposed concepts for utilizing remotely operated equipment to perform repetitious or hazardous surface tasks, including a generic lunar surface telerobotic servicer and various teleoperated vehicles for construction and mining operations.
The study also considered the potential for more advanced robotic systems and artificial intelligence (AI) to support and augment human crews in lunar base operations. This includes the development of autonomous rovers and drones for exploration and mapping, the use of AI-powered decision support systems for mission planning and execution, and the development of human-robot collaboration techniques for complex tasks such as construction and maintenance.
Under the Artemis program, the division of labor between humans and machines on the lunar surface will likely involve a greater degree of automation and robotic assistance compared to the 1987 study scenario. Advances in AI, machine learning, and autonomous systems over the past few decades have opened up new possibilities for human-robot collaboration and the delegation of tasks to robotic systems. The Artemis program aims to leverage these technologies to enhance the safety, efficiency, and productivity of lunar surface operations, while also reducing the workload and risk exposure of human crews.
Contingency Operations
Contingency operations were briefly addressed, emphasizing the importance of robust systems, redundancy, and emergency response planning to ensure crew safety and mission success.
The study also considered the development of advanced medical capabilities and technologies to support crew health and well-being during long-duration missions. This includes the use of telemedicine and remote medical support, the development of advanced diagnostic and treatment technologies, and the use of AI and machine learning for medical decision support and personalized medicine.
Under the Artemis program, contingency operations and emergency response planning will be a critical aspect of ensuring the safety and success of lunar surface missions. The program aims to establish a comprehensive contingency operations framework that includes robust systems redundancy, advanced medical capabilities, and effective emergency response procedures. This will involve the development of advanced life support systems, the use of telemedicine and remote medical support, and the implementation of contingency simulation and training programs for crew members and mission support personnel.
Relevance to Artemis Program
The findings and recommendations of the 1987 Eagle Engineering study remain highly relevant to NASA’s current plans for returning humans to the Moon through the Artemis program. Many of the key challenges and considerations identified in the study, such as the need for careful planning and coordination of surface operations, the importance of crew time management and optimization, and the potential for advanced technologies and robotics to support and augment human crews, are still critical issues today.
The Artemis program aims to establish a sustainable human presence on the Moon by 2028, with the ultimate goal of using the Moon as a stepping stone for future missions to Mars and beyond. To achieve this goal, NASA is developing a range of advanced technologies and systems, including the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, the Orion spacecraft, the Gateway lunar outpost, and the Human Landing System (HLS).
The lessons learned from the 1987 study can inform the design and development of these systems, as well as the planning and execution of Artemis surface operations. For example, the study’s emphasis on the importance of EVA time management and the potential for teleoperation and robotics to support surface operations is directly relevant to NASA’s plans for using the Gateway as a staging point for lunar surface missions and the development of advanced spacesuits and robotic systems for Artemis.
Similarly, the study’s consideration of ISRU and the potential for lunar resource utilization aligns with NASA’s plans to develop sustainable exploration capabilities and reduce reliance on Earth-based resources. The Artemis program includes plans for demonstrating ISRU technologies and techniques, such as the extraction of water from lunar regolith and the production of oxygen and other materials using local resources.
Finally, the study’s emphasis on the importance of integrating science objectives with exploration and resource development goals is reflected in NASA’s plans for Artemis, which include a range of scientific investigations and technology demonstrations designed to advance our understanding of the Moon and its potential for supporting future human exploration and settlement.
Summary
The analysis of surface operations associated with a human-tended lunar base, as presented in the 1987 Eagle Engineering study, provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead as humanity takes its next steps toward establishing a permanent presence on the Moon. By carefully planning and executing these operations, and leveraging advanced technologies and techniques, we can pave the way for a sustainable and thriving lunar settlement that will serve as a stepping stone to further exploration of our solar system.
As NASA prepares to return humans to the Moon through the Artemis program, the lessons learned from this study remain highly relevant and can inform the design and development of the systems and technologies needed to support long-duration lunar missions. By building on the foundation laid by this study and other early lunar exploration efforts, and by incorporating the latest advances in science, technology, and engineering, we can realize the vision of a permanent human presence on the Moon and beyond.
