Connecting the Unconnected: An In-Depth Analysis of Direct-to-Device Satellite Services

A New Era of Global Connectivity

A new frontier in telecommunications is opening, one that promises to connect devices directly to satellites orbiting hundreds of kilometers above the Earth. This technology, known broadly as Direct-to-Device (D2D) communication, represents a fundamental shift in how global connectivity is achieved. It enables standard, unmodified consumer products—from the smartphone in your pocket to a remote sensor in a field—to establish a link with a satellite network. This capability bypasses the need for traditional ground-based infrastructure like cell towers or specialized, bulky satellite hardware such as dishes and dedicated phones.

The core value proposition of D2D is the elimination of communication “dead zones.” For decades, cellular coverage has been dictated by the economics of building and maintaining terrestrial towers, leaving vast stretches of the planet—remote landscapes, rural communities, and open oceans—without a reliable signal. D2D services are designed to supplement existing terrestrial networks, acting as a crucial safety net. They provide a connection where ground infrastructure is impractical or has been compromised, such as during natural disasters, making them invaluable for emergency response. This technology is not intended to replace the high-speed, high-capacity cellular service available in populated areas, but rather to augment it, ensuring a baseline of connectivity is available almost anywhere on Earth.

It is important to distinguish D2D from legacy satellite services. Unlike traditional satellite phones, which are often costly, cumbersome devices built for a niche market of government agencies or industrial users, D2D capabilities are being integrated directly into mass-market smartphones. Similarly, D2D is distinct from residential satellite broadband, which provides high-speed internet to homes but requires a fixed, professionally installed dish antenna. D2D, in its current form, is a lower-capacity service designed for basic connectivity on the go, using the small, un-aimed antennas already built into a standard mobile device.

The terminology in this emerging field can be inconsistent, reflecting a nascent market where companies are still defining their technological and marketing approaches. The term Direct-to-Device, or D2D, is often used as a broad technical descriptor, especially when referring to the Internet of Things (IoT). A related term, Direct-to-Cell (D2C), is frequently used by companies like SpaceX to emphasize their partnership-driven model with Mobile Network Operators (MNOs), where the satellite essentially acts as a cell tower for a standard phone. Other players may simply refer to their offering by its function, such as Apple’s “Emergency SOS via satellite.” This lack of a standard lexicon signals a competitive environment where branding and positioning are as important as the underlying technology. For the purposes of this report, “Direct-to-Device” will be used as the overarching term encompassing these related concepts.

The primary driver for D2D is not to compete with terrestrial mobile networks but to complement them. The business models are overwhelmingly built on partnerships between satellite operators and MNOs. Terrestrial networks are, and will remain, far superior in speed, capacity, and the ability to penetrate buildings. It is not technically or economically feasible for satellites to replace them. Instead, MNOs view D2D as a powerful tool to solve the “last 4%” coverage problem, fulfill regulatory coverage mandates in rural areas, and enhance customer loyalty by offering a valuable safety and connectivity feature. This creates a symbiotic relationship where the success of D2D technology is inextricably linked to the existing mobile ecosystem. Satellite operators aren’t just selling a signal from space; they are providing a solution that enhances and extends the service offerings of their terrestrial partners.

How It Works: The Technology Behind Ubiquitous Connectivity

The ability for a standard smartphone to communicate with a satellite hundreds of kilometers away is a significant engineering achievement. It is made possible by a convergence of advancements in satellite design, launch economics, and mobile network technology. The process transforms a distant satellite into what can be best described as a “cell tower in space.”

The “Cell Tower in Space” Concept

At its core, D2D technology works by equipping satellites with sophisticated radio equipment that can communicate directly with devices on the ground using standard cellular protocols like 4G LTE. These satellites carry an advanced modem, known in telecommunications as an eNodeB, which is the same type of hardware found in a terrestrial cell tower. This onboard modem allows the satellite to establish a direct communication link with a phone, bypassing the need for an intermediary ground station to relay the initial signal. When a user is outside the range of a terrestrial tower, their phone can search for and connect to the satellite’s signal as if it were roaming onto a partner network. The satellite then uses its own high-speed network, often employing laser links to communicate with other satellites in its constellation, to route the communication back to a ground station, which connects it to the global internet and public telephone network.

The Role of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Constellations

This direct connection is only feasible because the satellites operate in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Traditional communications satellites are in geostationary orbit (GEO), approximately 35,786 kilometers above the Earth. At this altitude, the signal delay, or latency, is very high, and the signal is far too weak to be received by a small, low-power smartphone antenna.

LEO satellites, by contrast, orbit at altitudes between 500 and 2,000 kilometers. This relative proximity to the Earth dramatically reduces latency and, more importantly, makes it possible for the weak radio in a smartphone to successfully transmit a signal that the satellite can detect. This is a central challenge in D2D engineering, governed by the physics of the “link budget”—an accounting of all the power gains and losses a signal experiences as it travels from the transmitter to the receiver. The immense distance creates a massive signal loss that must be overcome.

Because LEO satellites are moving across the sky at high speeds (completing an orbit in as little as 90-100 minutes), they are only in view of a user on the ground for a few minutes at a time. To provide continuous, uninterrupted service, operators must deploy a large “constellation” of many satellites. As one satellite moves out of view, the communication session must be seamlessly “handed off” to the next satellite coming over the horizon, much like a phone hands off a call between cell towers as you drive down a highway.

Two Fundamental Approaches to Connectivity

The industry is currently pursuing two distinct technical pathways to establish the link between a phone and a satellite. These different approaches have profound implications for business strategy, device compatibility, and the regulatory landscape.

1. Modifying the Satellite (Terrestrial Spectrum Reuse)

The first approach involves designing the satellite to communicate using the radio frequencies already licensed to terrestrial MNOs. In this model, the satellite operator forms a deep partnership with a mobile carrier like T-Mobile or AT&T. The satellite is then equipped with radios that can broadcast and receive signals on a specific slice of the MNO’s spectrum.

2. Modifying the Device (Dedicated Satellite Spectrum)

The second approach involves modifying the device itself. In this model, the smartphone is manufactured with a specialized chipset and antenna designed to communicate on frequencies owned by the satellite operator. These dedicated frequencies are known as Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) bands, such as the L-band and S-band, which are globally allocated for satellite use.

This strategy requires a close partnership between a satellite operator and a device manufacturer. The most prominent example is the collaboration between Apple and Globalstar. Newer iPhone models are built with custom hardware that allows them to connect directly to the Globalstar satellite constellation using Globalstar’s licensed MSS spectrum. This creates a proprietary, closed ecosystem. While it requires consumers to purchase specific hardware, it gives the device maker and satellite operator full control over the service and avoids many of the complex regulatory issues associated with using terrestrial spectrum from space.

The Importance of Standards (3GPP and NTN)

To prevent a fragmented market of incompatible technologies and to ensure that D2D services can scale globally, industry standards are being developed. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), the body that creates global standards for mobile telecommunications, has been instrumental in this effort.

3GPP Release 17, a landmark update to the 5G standards, formally incorporated support for Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN). This provides a standardized framework for integrating satellite communications directly into the existing cellular ecosystem. By defining a common set of protocols and technical specifications, these standards ensure that devices and networks from different vendors can interoperate seamlessly. This accelerates deployment, fosters economies of scale for device manufacturers, and ultimately gives consumers more choice. For the growing IoT market, standards such as Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT) and LTE-M are being adapted for NTN use, enabling low-power sensors and trackers to benefit from satellite connectivity. The development of these standards is transforming D2D from a collection of proprietary experiments into a cohesive and integrated part of the future global communications infrastructure.

The Competitive Landscape: Key Players and Strategic Alliances

The race to provide D2D satellite services is being contested by a mix of ambitious startups, established satellite incumbents, and technology giants. The market is consolidating around a few key players, each pursuing a distinct strategy defined by its technology, partnerships, and target market. No company can succeed alone; the landscape is characterized by a complex web of strategic alliances that are critical for accessing spectrum, capital, and customers.

SpaceX (Starlink)

SpaceX, through its Starlink division, has entered the D2D market with a service it calls “Direct to Cell.” The company’s strategy is built on its unparalleled vertical integration. By leveraging its own Falcon 9 rockets and future Starship vehicle, SpaceX can manufacture and launch its D2D-capable satellites at a scale and cost that competitors find difficult to match.

• Technology and Strategy: Starlink’s satellites are equipped with onboard eNodeB modems, effectively acting as flying cell towers. The system uses the terrestrial spectrum of its MNO partners, requiring no modifications to end-user phones. To overcome the link budget challenge, SpaceX is deploying its satellites in very low-Earth orbit (VLEO), at altitudes around 350 km, to reduce the distance the signal must travel.
• Partnerships: Starlink has forged a foundational partnership with T-Mobile in the United States. This alliance has expanded into a global network of partners, including Rogers in Canada, Optus and Telstra in Australia, One NZ in New Zealand, KDDI in Japan, and others across Europe and South America.
• Status and Roadmap: The service began rolling out for texting in the U.S. and New Zealand in late 2024 and early 2025. The company’s roadmap includes adding voice, data, and IoT capabilities starting in 2025, with the ultimate goal of providing ubiquitous global coverage.

AST SpaceMobile

AST SpaceMobile is pursuing what is arguably the most ambitious technical vision in the D2D space: providing true mobile broadband directly to standard smartphones. Its strategy is centered on overcoming the link budget problem with sheer antenna size.

• Technology and Strategy: The company is building a constellation of LEO satellites that feature massive phased-array antennas. Its BlueWalker 3 prototype satellite unfolded to an area of 64 square meters, and its planned commercial BlueBird satellites are designed to be even larger. These powerful antennas can form and steer highly focused beams, allowing them to establish a strong connection for broadband data. Like Starlink, AST’s model relies on using the terrestrial spectrum of its MNO partners.
• Partnerships: AST has garnered support from some of the world’s largest telecommunications companies, including AT&T, Verizon, and Vodafone. It is also backed by tech giants like Google and has established partnerships for government and defense applications, such as with Singapore’s Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) for disaster relief.
• Status and Roadmap: AST has successfully demonstrated 4G and 5G voice and data calls on unmodified smartphones using its prototype satellite. The company plans to begin launching its first block of commercial satellites in mid-2025, with the goal of enabling continuous service in key markets like the U.S. by 2026.

Lynk Global

Lynk Global has taken a pragmatic, MNO-centric approach, positioning itself as a seamless roaming partner for mobile carriers around the world. The company’s focus is on being the simplest way for an MNO to extend its network into uncovered areas.

• Technology and Strategy: Lynk has patented a “cell-tower-in-space” technology that allows its LEO satellites to integrate directly into an MNO’s core network. When a subscriber wanders out of terrestrial coverage, their phone simply roams onto the Lynk network as it would onto any other partner network.
• Partnerships: Lynk has focused on building a broad coalition of MNO partners, signing agreements with over 50 carriers in more than 60 countries, with a particular focus on island nations and regions with challenging geography. Key partners include Turkcell in Turkey, MEO in Portugal, and Rogers in Canada. It has also secured funding and network support from established satellite operator SES.
• Status and Roadmap: Lynk is one of the first to market with commercial services, currently providing two-way SMS and emergency alerts in several countries. The company has successfully demonstrated voice calls and plans to introduce data services as it expands its constellation.

Apple and Globalstar

The Apple/Globalstar alliance represents a completely different strategic path: the closed ecosystem model. Instead of partnering with MNOs, this collaboration is between a device maker and a satellite operator to create a feature exclusive to a specific hardware platform.

• Technology and Strategy: This approach relies on modifying the device. Apple’s iPhone 14 and newer models are equipped with a custom-designed chipset and antenna that can communicate directly with Globalstar’s LEO satellite constellation. The system uses Globalstar’s own licensed MSS spectrum, giving the partners full control over the network and user experience.
• Partnerships: The partnership is deep and exclusive. Apple has invested over $1.5 billion in Globalstar. This funding is being used to upgrade Globalstar’s ground infrastructure and to finance a next-generation constellation of satellites. In return, Apple has secured 85% of Globalstar’s network capacity for its services.
• Status and Roadmap: The “Emergency SOS via satellite” feature is already live in more than a dozen countries. While the current service is limited to emergency messaging and location sharing, the partnership’s structure and investment suggest future plans could include expanded two-way messaging or other low-bandwidth data services to further differentiate the iPhone.

Comparative Analysis of Leading D2D Providers

The strategic divergences between the main players are stark. The “Open Ecosystem” approach of SpaceX, AST SpaceMobile, and Lynk aims for broad compatibility across many devices and carriers, leveraging emerging industry standards. The “Closed Ecosystem” of Apple/Globalstar prioritizes a tightly integrated, premium user experience on a proprietary platform. The following table summarizes these key differences.

Current Services and Applications

While the long-term vision for D2D includes full mobile broadband, the services available today and in the near future are focused on low-bandwidth applications that address the most immediate and compelling needs. This “crawl, walk, run” strategy allows providers to manage user expectations, prove the technology’s value, and build a sustainable business case while their satellite constellations grow.

The First Wave: Emergency Services and Safety

The initial and most widely publicized application of D2D is for safety and emergency communications. This use case has a clear and powerful value proposition: providing a lifeline when all other means of communication fail. Apple’s “Emergency SOS via satellite” feature, available on iPhone 14 and later models, was the first to bring this capability to the mass market. It allows users in areas without cellular or Wi-Fi coverage to send a compressed text message with their location to emergency services. This service has already been credited with facilitating numerous rescues of hikers, motorists, and others in distress.

Beyond individual consumer safety, D2D is poised to become a vital tool for organized emergency response. During natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes, or wildfires, terrestrial communication networks are often damaged or destroyed. D2D provides a resilient backup network, allowing first responders to coordinate their efforts and enabling public safety agencies to issue emergency alerts to affected populations. It also significantly enhances safety for lone workers in remote industries such as forestry, mining, and utilities, ensuring they can call for help even when far from the nearest cell tower.

Expanding to Two-Way Messaging

The next logical step beyond one-way emergency alerts is basic two-way SMS texting. Several providers, including Starlink/T-Mobile and Lynk, have already begun deploying this service commercially. This capability allows for non-emergency communication from remote locations, offering peace of mind to travelers, boaters, and residents in rural areas. While it doesn’t provide the rich experience of modern messaging apps, the ability to send and receive simple text messages can be invaluable for confirming one’s safety, coordinating logistics, or staying in touch with family.

Connecting Remote and Underserved Communities

One of the most significant societal benefits of D2D technology is its potential to help bridge the global digital divide. The GSMA estimates that approximately 4% of the world’s population, or about 400 million people, live completely outside the range of a mobile broadband network. For these communities, D2D can provide first-time access to basic digital communication. In rural, mountainous, and maritime regions where the cost of deploying terrestrial cell towers is prohibitive, satellite connectivity offers an economically viable alternative. This can empower communities to better respond to local emergencies, access information, and participate in the digital economy.

The Internet of Things (IoT) Frontier

While consumer smartphone connectivity garners the most headlines, the enterprise IoT market may represent a more immediate and commercially stable opportunity for D2D providers. D2D technology is a game-changer for deploying and managing massive networks of low-power sensors and devices in areas without terrestrial coverage. The data requirements for many IoT applications are modest—often just small, infrequent packets of information—which is a perfect match for the current technical capabilities of D2D networks.

The applications span numerous industries:

• Agriculture: Farmers can use satellite-connected sensors to monitor soil moisture, crop health, and weather conditions across vast, remote fields, enabling precision agriculture and improving yields. Livestock can be tracked to monitor their location and health.
• Logistics and Supply Chain: Companies can track high-value assets like shipping containers, vehicles, and cargo as they move across oceans and remote land routes, providing unprecedented global visibility and improving efficiency.
• Energy and Utilities: D2D allows for the monitoring of remote infrastructure such as pipelines, oil rigs, and wind turbines, enabling predictive maintenance and preventing costly failures.
• Environmental Monitoring: Scientists and conservation groups can deploy sensors to track wildlife migration patterns, monitor for forest fires, or collect data from ocean buoys in the middle of the sea.

The market for satellite-addressable IoT devices is projected to be in the billions of units. For D2D operators, the steady, predictable revenue from these enterprise contracts could provide the financial foundation needed to fund the more ambitious and capital-intensive build-out of consumer-facing voice and data services.

Overcoming the Hurdles: A Multifaceted Challenge

The path to ubiquitous D2D connectivity is not straightforward. The industry faces a formidable set of interconnected technical, regulatory, and economic hurdles that must be overcome before the technology can achieve widespread adoption. Progress in one area is often dependent on solving challenges in the others, creating a complex cycle that requires simultaneous navigation on multiple fronts.

Technical Hurdles

The fundamental laws of physics impose significant constraints on communicating between a low-power handheld device and a satellite orbiting hundreds of kilometers away.

• Latency and Bandwidth: Latency, the delay in signal transmission, is inherent in satellite communication due to the vast distances involved. While LEO constellations offer much lower latency than their GEO counterparts, the delay is still noticeably higher than in terrestrial networks. This can impact the quality of real-time applications like voice and video calls, which are sensitive to lag. Bandwidth, or data throughput, is also extremely limited compared to cellular networks. The weak signal from a phone can only carry a small amount of information, which is why initial services are restricted to low-data-rate applications like text messaging.
• Device Power Consumption: A smartphone must transmit at a significantly higher power level to reach a satellite than it does to reach a nearby cell tower. This increased power draw can rapidly drain the device’s battery. Furthermore, it generates excess heat, which can cause the phone’s processor to throttle performance or even trigger an automatic shutdown to prevent damage. In an emergency situation, a device shutting down due to overheating or a dead battery would be a critical failure.
• Signal Propagation and Reliability: D2D services require a clear, unobstructed line of sight to the sky. This means the connection will not work reliably indoors, in dense urban areas with tall buildings (“urban canyons”), or even under heavy tree cover. The signal can also be degraded by adverse weather conditions like heavy rain or snow.
• Network Handoff: As users move between areas with terrestrial coverage and satellite-only coverage, their devices must seamlessly hand off the connection from one network to the other without dropping calls or data sessions. Achieving this level of integration between entirely different network architectures is a complex software and engineering challenge.

Regulatory and Spectrum Hurdles

Navigating the global regulatory environment is perhaps the most complex challenge facing D2D operators. Radio spectrum is a finite and highly regulated resource.

• Spectrum Allocation: A central debate revolves around which radio frequencies should be used for D2D services. One approach is to use dedicated MSS bands, which are globally harmonized for satellite use but are scarce and largely controlled by incumbent operators. The other approach is to repurpose bands already licensed for terrestrial mobile services. This method offers access to more spectrum and works with existing phones, but it creates a significant risk of interference.
• Interference Management: Preventing satellite signals from interfering with existing services is the primary concern of regulators like the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Satellites broadcasting in terrestrial bands could potentially disrupt the very cellular networks they are meant to supplement. There are also serious concerns about D2D transmissions interfering with other critical satellite services, particularly the Global Positioning System (GPS), whose signals are extremely faint and vulnerable to adjacent-band noise.
• International Coordination: A satellite’s footprint can cover multiple countries simultaneously. This means that its operation requires complex international agreements to manage spectrum use and prevent cross-border interference. Global rules are coordinated through the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations. The next World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-27), scheduled for 2027, will be a key event for establishing a harmonized global framework for D2D services. Until then, operators must navigate a patchwork of national regulations.

Economic Hurdles

The financial realities of the space industry present a high barrier to entry and a significant risk for investors.

• Capital Expenditure: Designing, building, launching, and operating a constellation of hundreds or thousands of satellites is an immensely expensive undertaking, with upfront costs running into the billions of dollars. This massive capital requirement means that only deeply funded companies can realistically compete. There is a tangible risk that some of the less well-funded entrants could run out of capital before their networks become commercially viable.
• Business Model Viability: Beyond the initial investment, operators must develop a sustainable business model. This involves securing partnerships with MNOs and establishing pricing structures that both consumers and enterprises are willing to pay. The consumer market presents a particular challenge, as the willingness of users to pay a monthly fee for a supplemental service they may only use occasionally is still an unproven variable.

These hurdles are not independent; they are deeply intertwined. A technical choice, such as using terrestrial spectrum, immediately creates a regulatory challenge. Solving that regulatory problem requires demonstrating that interference can be managed, which is a technical problem. The entire endeavor requires billions in funding, which investors will only provide if they see a clear path through the technical and regulatory minefield to a profitable market. This feedback loop explains why the D2D market is developing at a measured pace despite the considerable excitement surrounding it.

The Path Forward: The Future of Direct-to-Device

Despite the significant challenges, the D2D industry is moving forward on a clear evolutionary path. The technology is poised to transition from a niche safety feature to an integral component of the global communications fabric, with expanding capabilities and a growing economic and societal impact.

The Service Evolution Roadmap

The industry’s trajectory is one of progressively increasing capability. The initial phase, which is already underway, is focused on low-bandwidth services that provide the most immediate value. This includes emergency SOS alerts, one-way broadcasts, and basic two-way SMS texting.

The next phase, expected to gain traction over the next two to five years, will introduce voice services. Several players have already successfully demonstrated voice calls over their networks, and this will be a major milestone for providing a more complete communication solution in remote areas.

The ultimate goal for the most ambitious players is to deliver true mobile broadband data directly to the handset. This will require larger and more powerful satellite constellations, further advancements in antenna and modem technology, and a favorable regulatory environment. While full-fledged data services comparable to terrestrial 5G are a longer-term aspiration, the introduction of even modest data capabilities would unlock a vast range of new applications, from richer messaging to basic web browsing and IoT data transfer.

Market Projections and Growth

The D2D market is projected to experience substantial growth over the next decade. While forecasts vary, industry analysts anticipate that annual revenues could reach between $15 billion and $17 billion by the early 2030s. Over the next ten years, the cumulative revenue generated for the satellite sector could exceed $66 billion. This growth will be driven by an expanding user base, which is expected to grow to several hundred million subscribers globally as more devices become D2D-capable and services become more widely available.

Broader Societal and Economic Impact

The influence of D2D will extend far beyond simple connectivity. By providing a resilient communication layer, it can significantly enhance disaster preparedness and response, potentially reducing the immense economic costs of natural disasters by enabling better coordination and faster aid delivery.

In developing nations and remote regions, D2D can be a powerful engine for economic development. By bridging the digital divide, it can unlock access to critical services like digital finance, e-commerce, telehealth, and remote education, connecting previously isolated communities to the global economy. Furthermore, it will serve as a key enabling technology for major industries, powering the next generation of precision agriculture, creating more efficient global supply chains, and facilitating the monitoring of environmental conditions and critical infrastructure on a planetary scale.

Integration with 5G and Future Networks

D2D is not being developed in a vacuum. It is being designed from the ground up to be an integrated component of future 5G and, eventually, 6G networks. The standards developed by 3GPP for Non-Terrestrial Networks are ensuring that satellite connectivity will function as a seamless extension of the terrestrial network. This convergence of terrestrial and non-terrestrial systems will create a single, hybrid global network. For the end-user, the distinction between connecting to a tower on the ground or a satellite in the sky will become invisible. The device will intelligently and automatically select the best available network, ensuring that a connection is always maintained. This vision of a ubiquitous connectivity fabric, rather than any single “killer app,” represents the true long-term promise of Direct-to-Device technology.

Summary

Direct-to-Device satellite communication marks a significant evolution in the quest for global connectivity. It is transitioning satellite services from a niche product for specialized users into a mainstream feature integrated into everyday devices like smartphones and IoT sensors. The core promise is to eliminate communication dead zones, providing a vital safety net and a baseline of connectivity in remote, rural, and underserved areas, as well as during emergencies when terrestrial networks fail.

The market is active and competitive, with key players forging distinct strategic paths. Some, like SpaceX and AST SpaceMobile, are building open ecosystems in partnership with mobile network operators, aiming to become a wholesale infrastructure layer for the entire industry. Others, notably Apple and its partner Globalstar, are creating closed, proprietary ecosystems to deliver a premium, integrated experience on their own hardware. The success of these competing models will depend on their ability to scale their networks, secure regulatory approvals, and build sustainable business cases.

While the potential of ubiquitous connectivity is profound, the path to achieving it is laden with substantial and interconnected challenges. Technically, operators must contend with the fundamental physics of space communication, which impose limits on latency, bandwidth, and device power. From a regulatory standpoint, navigating the complex and contentious issues of spectrum allocation and interference management on a global scale is a monumental task. Economically, the immense upfront capital required to build and launch satellite constellations presents a formidable barrier to entry and a significant risk for investors.

D2D technology is not a replacement for high-speed terrestrial cellular networks; It is a complementary and vital new layer in the global communications infrastructure. Its development will be a gradual evolution over the next decade. The journey has begun with essential safety and messaging services. As constellations expand and technology matures, these capabilities will grow to include the voice and data services that will finally connect the last of the unconnected, truly weaving a seamless fabric of connectivity across the entire planet.