The International Space Station: A Global Laboratory in Orbit

An Open Gateway to Space Research

For more than two decades, the International Space Station (ISS) has circled the Earth, a testament to human ingenuity and international cooperation. More than just an outpost on the edge of space, the ISS is a continuously inhabited, world-class laboratory. It represents a unique platform for scientific discovery, enabling research that is impossible to conduct within the grasp of Earth’s gravity. For over 20 years, this orbiting laboratory has hosted astronauts and scientists who have conducted a vast array of experiments, pushing the boundaries of knowledge in fields ranging from medicine to materials science.

To make the fruits of this extensive research accessible, NASA provides the Space Station Research Explorer. This digital portal serves as a comprehensive gateway for the public, educators, and the scientific community to delve into the wealth of information generated aboard the station. The explorer is a searchable database containing detailed information on thousands of experiments, including their objectives, descriptions, results, imagery, and links to the scientific publications that have emerged from the work. It transforms decades of complex research into a transparent and navigable archive, cataloging the scientific journey of the ISS.

The sheer scale of this endeavor is remarkable. Since the first crew took up residence in 2000, more than 4,000 investigations have been conducted on the station. This work has been carried out by a global consortium of researchers from over 100 countries, leading to the publication of thousands of scientific papers. The existence of a public-facing tool like the Research Explorer highlights a core aspect of the ISS mission: it is not only a platform to conduct science but also to communicate its value and justify the immense international investment it represents. It is a deliberate effort to show the tangible benefits that arise from this orbital platform, making the science of space accessible to all.

The Scope of Science in Microgravity

The research conducted aboard the ISS is vast and varied, spanning a wide range of scientific disciplines. These investigations are broadly organized into several key categories, each designed to leverage the unique conditions of low-Earth orbit. The primary fields of study include Biology and Biotechnology, Human Research, Physical Science, and Technology Development and Demonstration. Smaller, yet still significant, efforts are dedicated to Earth and Space Science and a variety of Educational Activities designed to inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers.

This diverse research portfolio is managed through a historic partnership of international space agencies. While NASA is the largest single contributor of experiments, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the State Space Corporation ROSCOSMOS, and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) all manage and conduct a significant number of investigations. Furthermore, the ISS National Laboratory, managed by the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), facilitates access for non-NASA researchers from commercial entities, academic institutions, and other government agencies, with many of these projects being sponsored through NASA. This collaborative structure ensures that the ISS is truly a global asset.

An analysis of the thousands of experiments cataloged in the Space Station Research Explorer database provides a clear, quantitative picture of the station’s scientific priorities. The distribution of experiments across sponsoring agencies and research categories reveals a dual mandate: to conduct fundamental science that benefits life on Earth and to develop the knowledge and technology required to enable the future of human space exploration.

The following table details the breakdown of experiments by the primary sponsoring space agency, illustrating the international commitment to the station’s scientific mission. NASA‘s role as the leading contributor is evident, but the substantial involvement of its international partners underscores the collaborative nature of the enterprise.

The second table provides a breakdown of experiments by their primary research category. This data highlights the station’s focus, with Biology and Biotechnology, Human Research, and Physical Science constituting the majority of the investigations. This emphasis reflects the unique advantages of the microgravity environment for studying biological systems and fundamental physical phenomena. The significant number of technology demonstrations further shows the station’s role as a critical testbed for future exploration hardware.

These statistics reveal a symbiotic relationship at the heart of the ISS program. The push for deeper space exploration—missions to the Moon and Mars—necessitates a understanding of how to keep humans healthy and how to build reliable technology for the journey. This need drives the large number of experiments in Human Research and Technology Development. In turn, the pursuit of this exploration-focused research yields powerful insights and innovations in medicine, materials, and other fields, delivering tangible benefits back to Earth. These terrestrial benefits help justify the continued operation of the orbital platform, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of discovery and innovation.

Human Research: Adapting to the Final Frontier

One of the most compelling functions of the International Space Station is its role as a laboratory for studying the human body. For missions that will take astronauts to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, it is essential to understand and mitigate the risks posed by long-duration spaceflight. On the ISS, the astronauts themselves are the subjects of a comprehensive research program designed to investigate how the body adapts to the absence of gravity and the increased exposure to space radiation. This research is not only preparing humanity for its next steps into the cosmos but is also providing insights into health and disease on Earth.

The physiological changes that occur in space often mirror the effects of aging and certain diseases on the ground, but they happen on an accelerated timeline. In healthy, physically fit astronauts, scientists can observe changes in bone density, muscle strength, and cardiovascular function that would take decades to develop in the general population. This makes the ISS a unique platform for studying the fundamental mechanisms of these conditions in a controlled environment, free from the complicating factors of diet, lifestyle, and pre-existing illnesses that affect Earth-based studies. Research designed to protect astronaut health, therefore, often has a direct and rapid path to therapies for age-related ailments on Earth.

Cardiovascular Health

On Earth, gravity pulls blood and other fluids toward the lower body. The cardiovascular system constantly works against this pull to ensure the brain receives adequate blood flow. In the microgravity environment of space, this downward pull vanishes. Fluids shift toward the head and upper body, and the heart no longer has to work as hard to pump blood “uphill.” While this adaptation is efficient for living in space, it leads to cardiovascular deconditioning, including a reduction in blood volume and a potential decrease in the size and function of the heart muscle. When astronauts return to Earth, their cardiovascular systems are suddenly challenged by gravity again, which can cause dizziness, fainting, and difficulty standing.

A suite of experiments on the ISS is dedicated to monitoring these changes. The Canadian Space Agency‘s Vascular Echo investigation uses ultrasound to examine the stiffening of arteries, a change that resembles accelerated aging. Other studies, like CARDIOBREATH, look at how the cardiovascular and respiratory systems interact to regulate blood pressure in space. Research has also identified a potential increased risk of atrial fibrillation, or an irregular heartbeat, during and after spaceflight. To better understand these mechanisms and test potential treatments, scientists use advanced models. The Engineered Heart Tissues investigation, for example, cultures 3D cardiac tissues—”hearts-on-a-chip”—that mimic the behavior of a real heart. By observing how these tissues change in microgravity, researchers can gain insights into cardiac disease and test the efficacy of new drugs in a way that is not possible on the ground.

Bone and Muscle Atrophy

The human musculoskeletal system is designed to work against the constant force of gravity. Without this mechanical loading, bones and muscles begin to weaken. In space, the cells responsible for building new bone slow down, while the cells that break down old bone tissue continue to operate at a normal pace. This imbalance leads to a rapid loss of bone density, particularly in weight-bearing bones like the hips and spine, at a rate of roughly 1% per month. This condition, known as spaceflight osteopenia, is remarkably similar to the osteoporosis that affects millions of people on Earth, especially the elderly. Likewise, muscles that are used for posture and movement on Earth, such as those in the legs and back, are used far less in microgravity and begin to atrophy from disuse.

To counteract this, astronauts aboard the ISS adhere to a strict and rigorous exercise regimen, working out for about two hours every day. They use specialized equipment designed for microgravity, including the Advanced Resistive Exercise Device (ARED), which uses vacuum cylinders to simulate weightlifting, and treadmills that use harnesses to hold the astronaut in place.

Alongside exercise, research is exploring novel therapies to combat this atrophy. One of the most successful has been the Rodent Research-19 experiment, also known as “Mighty Mice.” In this study, mice were treated with a drug that blocks two proteins, myostatin and activin A, which normally limit muscle and bone growth. The results were striking: the treated mice were protected from the muscle and bone loss that typically occurs in microgravity. This research has significant implications for developing treatments for people on Earth with muscle-wasting diseases like muscular dystrophy and disuse atrophy from being bedridden or wheelchair-bound.

Neurovestibular System

The brain’s ability to maintain balance and perceive spatial orientation relies on the vestibular system, located in the inner ear. This system uses tiny, gravity-sensing organs to detect motion and the direction of “down.” In microgravity, the signals from these organs become unreliable and conflict with what the eyes are seeing. This sensory mismatch is the primary cause of space motion sickness, a common ailment for newly arrived astronauts characterized by disorientation, nausea, and vertigo.

While astronauts eventually adapt to this new sensory environment, the changes persist. Upon returning to Earth, their brains must readapt to gravity, leading to significant problems with balance, posture, and gaze control. Many report illusory sensations of movement and find it difficult to walk a straight line or turn corners.

To understand this complex process of adaptation and readaptation, experiments like Vestibular Health conduct systematic neuro-vestibular examinations on crew members before, during, and after their missions. These tests, which include tracking eye movements and assessing balance and gait, provide valuable data on how the central nervous system learns to reinterpret sensory information. This research is not only vital for ensuring astronauts can perform critical tasks after landing on another planet but also helps in treating patients on Earth with vestibular disorders.

Space Radiation

Beyond the protection of Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere, astronauts are exposed to a much harsher radiation environment. This environment is composed of two main sources: a constant shower of high-energy galactic cosmic rays (GCR) originating from outside the solar system, and periodic bursts of solar energetic particles (SEP) from the Sun. This radiation consists of protons and heavy ions that can penetrate spacecraft and the human body, damaging DNA within cells.

This DNA damage poses significant long-term health risks, including an increased likelihood of developing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and degenerative disorders of the central nervous system. To quantify these risks and develop effective countermeasures, the ISS is used as a platform for radiation research. Dosimeters are placed throughout the station to map the radiation environment. More advanced experiments, like the Phantom Torso, use an anatomical model equipped with hundreds of radiation detectors to measure the specific doses received by different organs. This data is essential for validating radiation shielding models and materials, helping engineers design safer spacecraft for future deep-space missions.

Biology and Biotechnology: Unlocking Life’s Secrets

The field of biology and biotechnology represents the largest and arguably one of the most productive areas of research aboard the International Space Station. The unique environment of microgravity has and often surprising effects on living organisms, from the molecular level to the whole system. By removing the masking effects of gravity, scientists can study the fundamental processes of life in ways that are simply not possible on Earth. This research is leading to revolutionary advances in medicine, drug development, and regenerative therapies, with direct benefits for human health.

The work being done on the ISS is catalyzing a fundamental shift in biomedical research. For decades, drug discovery has relied on a lengthy and often inefficient process of trial and error. The station’s unique capabilities, particularly in protein crystal growth and 3D tissue modeling, are enabling a new paradigm of precision, structure-based design. This is accelerating the research and development pipeline, shortening the time it takes to bring new therapies from the lab to the clinic. Similarly, the ability to grow and study complex human tissues in space is transforming regenerative medicine from a futuristic concept into a tangible, near-term possibility.

Innovations in Medicine and Drug Development

Protein Crystal Growth

One of the most successful applications of microgravity is in the field of protein crystallography. Proteins are the workhorses of the body, and their specific three-dimensional shape determines their function. To treat many diseases, scientists design drugs that can bind to a specific protein, much like a key fitting into a lock, to either block or enhance its activity. To design the perfect “key,” they first need an exact blueprint of the “lock”—a high-resolution 3D model of the protein’s structure.

The best way to obtain this blueprint is through a technique called X-ray diffraction, which requires a large, perfectly ordered protein crystal. On Earth, growing such crystals is notoriously difficult. Gravity causes convection currents in the solution that disrupt the delicate crystallization process, and sedimentation causes the heavier protein molecules to fall out of solution, resulting in small, flawed crystals.

In the microgravity environment of the ISS, these gravity-driven forces are virtually eliminated. Protein molecules can diffuse slowly and evenly through the solution, allowing them to incorporate into the crystal lattice in a more orderly fashion. The result is larger, more uniform, and structurally perfect crystals. This research area is so productive that protein crystal growth (PCG) experiments are the single largest category of investigation conducted on the station.

The high-quality crystals grown in space have enabled breakthroughs in drug development. For example, research on a protein associated with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, an incurable genetic disorder, allowed scientists to precisely map its structure. This knowledge led to the design of a potential drug, TAS-205, which has completed clinical trials. Similarly, the pharmaceutical company Merck has used the ISS to grow crystals of its cancer immunotherapy drug, Keytruda®. The goal is to develop a more stable, concentrated formulation that could be administered as a simple injection rather than a lengthy intravenous infusion, significantly improving convenience for patients. Other studies have focused on identifying structural targets for new anti-tuberculosis drugs, addressing a major global health threat.

Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

Another revolutionary area of research involves growing human cells and tissues in space. On Earth, when cells are cultured in a petri dish, they grow in an artificial, flat two-dimensional layer. In microgravity, however, cells behave much more like they do inside the human body, spontaneously assembling into complex, three-dimensional structures. This allows scientists to create more realistic models of human tissues and organs.

This capability has led to the development of “tissue chips” or “organs-on-a-chip”—small devices that contain living human cells grown on a scaffold to mimic the function of organs like the heart, liver, and lungs. These models are invaluable for studying disease progression and testing the efficacy and toxicity of new drugs with much greater accuracy than 2D cultures or even animal models.

Stem cell research is also flourishing on the ISS. Early results suggest that microgravity can enhance the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells—the body’s master cells that can develop into various specialized cell types. This could accelerate the development of cell-based therapies for a wide range of conditions. The Engineered Heart Tissues investigation, for instance, uses stem cells to grow cardiac muscle tissue to study heart disease and test potential treatments. Other research explores using stem cells to treat neurodegenerative diseases, blood disorders, and to repair damaged tissue.

Looking further ahead, the ISS is a testbed for 3D bioprinting. Using facilities like the BioFabrication Facility (BFF), researchers are experimenting with printing complex tissue structures layer by layer using “bio-inks” made of living cells. On Earth, these delicate structures would collapse under their own weight. In microgravity, they can be fabricated with a precision that may one day make it possible to print entire organs for transplantation, addressing the critical shortage of donor organs.

Life in a Closed System

Plant Science

For long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars, astronauts will need to grow their own food. The ISS serves as a crucial platform for understanding how plants adapt to growing without gravity as a cue for root and shoot direction. Experiments like APEX (Advanced Plant Experiments) and XROOTS use hydroponic and aeroponic systems to study the entire life cycle of plants in space. Astronauts have successfully cultivated a variety of crops, including zinnias, radishes, tomatoes, and several types of lettuce, providing both fresh food and a psychological boost for the crew.

Microbiology

The ISS provides a unique, closed environment for studying how microorganisms behave over long periods. This research is vital for maintaining astronaut health and the integrity of the spacecraft. Studies like Bacterial Adhesion and Corrosion investigate how bacteria form biofilms, which can contaminate water systems and corrode equipment. Other experiments, such as BRIC-25, examine whether bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus become more virulent or antibiotic-resistant in space. This knowledge helps develop better sanitation protocols and countermeasures to protect crew health on future missions.

Physical Sciences: Rewriting the Rules of Matter

The International Space Station provides a laboratory unlike any on Earth for the study of physical sciences. By removing the overwhelming influence of gravity, scientists can observe the subtle, underlying forces that govern the behavior of matter. Phenomena like surface tension, diffusion, and weak convective forces, which are often masked on the ground, become dominant in microgravity. This allows for fundamental investigations into fluid dynamics, combustion, and materials science that are not only expanding our understanding of the universe but also leading to significant technological and commercial applications back on Earth.

Much of the research in this domain follows a powerful cycle of innovation. It often begins with the need to solve a specific engineering challenge for space exploration—how to manage fuel in zero-g, how to prevent fires in a sealed cabin, or how to build stronger, lighter spacecraft. The fundamental knowledge gained from these applied studies, however, frequently leads to the development of commercially valuable products and processes for terrestrial use. This dynamic transforms the ISS from a pure science laboratory into a high-tech industrial park in orbit, where solving the problems of space travel directly fuels innovation on Earth.

Fluid Dynamics

On Earth, the behavior of fluids is dominated by gravity. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler, denser ones sink, creating the familiar process of convection. Gravity also causes sedimentation, where heavier particles in a mixture settle to the bottom. In the microgravity environment of the ISS, these effects are nearly absent. This allows scientists to study the “pure” behavior of fluids, driven by weaker forces.

Capillary action—the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity—is one such phenomenon. The Capillary Flow Experiment (CFE) has conducted extensive research on how liquids move along surfaces and through complex geometries in space. This knowledge is essential for designing reliable systems for future spacecraft, including fuel tanks that can deliver propellant to engines regardless of orientation, advanced cooling systems, and life support equipment that manages water and waste. The insights gained also have applications on Earth, helping to improve the formulation, stability, and shelf-life of complex fluid products like detergents, paints, and pharmaceuticals.

Combustion Science

Fire behaves dramatically differently without gravity. On Earth, the buoyancy created by gravity causes hot gases to rise, drawing in cooler air from below and creating the familiar flickering, teardrop-shaped flame. In space, this convective flow does not occur. As a result, flames are often spherical, stable, and burn at lower temperatures. This unique behavior allows for precise measurements that are difficult to obtain in the turbulent conditions of a terrestrial flame.

Using the Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR), a sealed chamber for safely conducting fire experiments, scientists study the fundamental processes of ignition, flame spread, and extinction. Investigations like Flame Design have examined how different conditions affect the production of soot—a major pollutant on Earth but also a useful industrial product. This research has two primary benefits. First, it is vital for improving fire safety aboard spacecraft, helping to select less flammable materials and develop more effective fire suppression techniques for closed environments. Second, it leads to a better understanding of combustion that can be used to design more efficient and cleaner engines, power plants, and industrial furnaces on Earth.

Materials Science

Microgravity offers an unparalleled environment for creating next-generation materials with superior properties. In materials processing, gravity can introduce defects and inconsistencies. When creating metal alloys on Earth, for instance, heavier elements can settle out of the molten mixture, leading to an uneven composition. In space, the absence of sedimentation allows for the creation of perfectly homogenous alloys that are stronger, lighter, and more durable.

One of the most promising areas of in-space manufacturing is the production of exotic optical fibers, such as ZBLAN. On Earth, as the glass fiber is drawn, gravity induces tiny structural imperfections and crystallization. These defects cause signal loss, limiting the distance data can travel without amplification. When produced in microgravity, these imperfections are virtually eliminated, resulting in an ultra-pure glass fiber that is theoretically capable of transmitting data with orders of magnitude less signal loss than the best terrestrial fibers. This technology could revolutionize telecommunications, medical lasers, and sensor technology.

In addition to creating new materials inside the station, external platforms like the Materials ISS Experiment Flight Facility (MISSE-FF) are used to test the durability of materials in the harsh environment of space. Thousands of samples, from new polymers and coatings to solar cells and fabrics, are mounted on the station’s exterior and exposed to atomic oxygen, extreme temperature cycles, and intense radiation for months or years. This data is crucial for designing long-lasting spacecraft and satellites.

Fundamental Physics

The ISS is also home to experiments that probe the very nature of reality. The Cold Atom Lab (CAL) is a facility that cools atoms down to temperatures just a fraction of a degree above absolute zero, colder than any known natural place in the universe. At these extreme temperatures, atoms can form a fifth state of matter known as a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC), where quantum phenomena become visible on a macroscopic scale. In microgravity, these delicate condensates can be observed for much longer periods than on Earth, allowing scientists to perform precise tests of the fundamental laws of quantum mechanics.

Mounted on the station’s truss, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) is a powerful particle physics detector. For over a decade, it has been scanning the cosmos, measuring the properties of over 100 billion cosmic particles. Its primary mission is to search for evidence of elusive dark matter and antimatter, seeking answers to some of the most questions about the composition and origin of the universe.

Technology for Tomorrow’s Missions

The International Space Station serves as a crucial engineering testbed, a proving ground in the relevant environment of space for the technologies that will enable humanity’s next great leap of exploration. Before committing to multi-year missions to the Moon and Mars, where there is no chance for quick resupply or return, every critical system must be validated for reliability, efficiency, and autonomy. The ISS provides the only long-duration, crewed platform where these advanced systems can be tested and matured, raising their Technology Readiness Level (TRL) from experimental prototypes to flight-proven hardware. This process of in-space validation is actively de-risking future deep-space missions, making the ambitious goals of lunar bases and Martian expeditions a tangible reality.

Robotics and Autonomous Systems

On long-duration missions, astronauts will be occupied with complex scientific and exploratory tasks. Routine maintenance, inventory management, and system monitoring will need to be increasingly automated to reduce the burden on the crew. The ISS is the primary platform for developing and testing the robotic assistants that will perform these duties.

The station is home to a trio of free-flying robots called Astrobee. These cube-shaped, self-propelled robots navigate the station’s modules autonomously, using their cameras and sensors to conduct surveys, transport cargo, and test new software. They are the centerpiece of projects like the Integrated System for Autonomous and Adaptive Caretaking (ISAAC), which is developing the “brains” for a new generation of robotic caretakers. The ISAAC software integrates data from the robots’ sensors with telemetry from the station’s own subsystems, allowing the robots to monitor vehicle health, locate items in storage, and even respond autonomously to anomalies like an air leak or a fire alarm. This research is foundational for the operation of future uncrewed facilities, such as the lunar Gateway, and for ensuring the safety and efficiency of crewed missions far from Earth.

Advanced Life Support Systems

For a mission to Mars, carrying all the necessary air, water, and food for the entire journey is not feasible. Survival depends on creating a nearly self-sufficient, closed-loop ecosystem within the spacecraft. The ISS is where these life-sustaining technologies are being perfected.

The station’s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is a complex suite of hardware designed to recycle and regenerate vital resources. The Water Recovery System collects wastewater from every possible source—including crew breath, sweat, and urine—and purifies it into clean drinking water. The Oxygen Generation System uses electrolysis to split this reclaimed water into breathable oxygen for the crew and hydrogen. The Air Revitalization System scrubs carbon dioxide exhaled by the astronauts from the cabin atmosphere.

A major milestone was recently achieved when the ECLSS demonstrated a water recovery rate of 98%. This breakthrough was made possible by the addition of the Brine Processor Assembly (BPA), a new component that wrings out the last drops of reclaimable water from the concentrated urine brine left over from the initial processing. Alongside NASA‘s system, the European Space Agency is testing its own Advanced Closed Loop System (ACLS) to further improve CO2 recycling. These technologies are not only critical for space exploration but have also led to spin-offs on Earth. The advanced water filtration and purification techniques developed for the ISS have been adapted into commercial systems that provide clean drinking water to remote communities and disaster-stricken areas worldwide.

In-Space Manufacturing and Repair

The farther humanity travels from Earth, the more self-sufficient missions must become. The ability to manufacture tools and spare parts on demand is a critical capability for ensuring mission safety and success. The ISS is pioneering the field of in-space manufacturing.

The station’s Additive Manufacturing Facility (AMF) is a 3D printer that has fabricated over 200 items, from crew tools and experiment hardware to replacement parts. This demonstrates the feasibility of producing necessary components in orbit, reducing the reliance on costly and time-consuming resupply missions from Earth.

Pushing the concept of a sustainable space economy further is the Refabricator experiment. This device is designed to take plastic waste—such as used food packaging and old printed parts—and recycle it back into high-quality filament that can be used by the 3D printer. This demonstrates a key principle of a circular economy in space, where resources are continuously reused, minimizing waste and the mass that must be launched from Earth. These capabilities are essential steps toward establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon and beyond.

Summary

The International Space Station stands as a monumental achievement in science and engineering, a powerful symbol of global collaboration. For more than two decades, it has served as a unique dual-purpose platform, simultaneously pushing the frontiers of human exploration and delivering benefits to life on Earth. The vast catalog of research documented in the Space Station Research Explorer paints a clear picture of an ambitious and highly successful scientific endeavor.

As a laboratory for human research, the ISS has been indispensable in preparing for future deep-space missions. By studying the effects of microgravity and radiation on the human body, scientists are developing the countermeasures and medical knowledge necessary to keep astronauts safe and healthy on long journeys to the Moon and Mars. As an engineering testbed, the station is the critical proving ground for the next generation of life support systems, robotics, and in-space manufacturing technologies that will make these ambitious voyages possible.

Simultaneously, this exploration-driven research has yielded a remarkable return on investment for society. The station’s microgravity environment has become a crucible for innovation, accelerating the development of new drugs to treat diseases like cancer and muscular dystrophy, enabling the creation of advanced materials with revolutionary properties, and providing fundamental insights into physical processes that can lead to more efficient energy solutions on the ground. The ISS is not just a laboratory in space; it is an engine of discovery that touches countless aspects of modern life.

The legacy of the International Space Station will be measured not only by the thousands of experiments conducted and papers published, but by the tangible improvements it has brought to human health, technology, and our fundamental understanding of the universe. It represents a critical and successful chapter in our ongoing journey, demonstrating what humanity can achieve when it works together to explore the unknown.