The European Space Economy

A Continental Strategy in Motion

The global space sector is undergoing a fundamental transformation. Once the exclusive domain of national governments, characterized by immense costs and monumental risks, space is rapidly evolving into a dynamic, commercially driven economy. This shift is fueled by technological advancements, from miniaturization to reusable launchers, and a new entrepreneurial spirit that sees vast commercial opportunities in orbit and beyond. Within this changing global context, Europe stands as a formidable space power. With the world’s second-largest public space budget, the continent has made significant investments, amounting to over €12 billion from the European Union alone between 2014 and 2020, with a further €16 billion allocated for its dedicated Space Programme for 2021-2027. This has resulted in world-class space systems like the Copernicus Earth observation network and the Galileo satellite navigation system, which have become indispensable to the daily lives of European citizens.

The European approach to space is a unique and complex tapestry woven from threads of pan-European collaboration and distinct national ambitions. At its heart lies the European Space Agency (ESA), an intergovernmental organization that pools the resources and expertise of its member states to undertake projects no single nation could achieve alone. Layered alongside ESA is the growing influence of the European Union, which has transitioned from a customer of space services to an operator of critical space infrastructure through its own agency, EUSPA. This institutional framework provides a foundation upon which individual nations build their own strategies, each with unique priorities, industrial strengths, and geopolitical goals. This article explores the intricate landscape of the European space economy, examining its market dynamics, the central role of its key institutions, and the diverse strategies of every nation on the continent as they collectively navigate the opportunities and challenges of the new space age.

The European Space Economy Landscape

Europe’s space sector is a cornerstone of its technological and industrial base, operating within a global space economy that has consistently grown faster than the world’s overall economic output. Yet, this position of strength is being challenged by significant shifts in the global market, forcing a re-evaluation of Europe’s competitive standing and strategic priorities. The continent’s space economy is characterized by a deep reliance on institutional funding, a structural divide between its manufacturing and service sectors, and a growing but fragile start-up ecosystem facing significant financial hurdles.

Market Dynamics and Competitive Position

The European space economy is a major component of a global market that grew at an average of 6.7% per year between 2005 and 2017, a rate nearly double that of the global economy. This robust expansion masks a more complicated reality for Europe. Recent analyses reveal that the continent’s commercial space market is facing headwinds. The explosive growth seen in the global sector is almost entirely attributable to non-European entities, namely SpaceX’s Starlink satellite constellation and extensive state-funded programs in China. For European satellite manufacturers, the Starlink boom presents no business opportunities, as SpaceX builds its own satellites. This has contributed to a situation where Europe’s commercial sales and exports have been in decline since peaking in 2017.

This commercial downturn has led to a significant shift in the customer base for European space companies. Publicly funded bodies, including the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Commission, and national agencies, now constitute a commanding 70% of the market. This marks a substantial increase in institutional dependency, highlighting a vulnerability in the commercial sector. While this strong public demand provides a stable foundation, particularly for flagship European programs, it also points to a struggle to compete on the global commercial stage. The European space manufacturing industry’s total sales reached €8.8 billion in 2024, a modest increase from the previous year. In contrast, employment in the sector has grown considerably, reaching nearly 66,000 full-time equivalents. This disconnect between sluggish revenue growth and rising employment figures reveals underlying structural challenges within the European space ecosystem.

The Upstream and Downstream Divide

The space economy is broadly divided into two main segments. The upstream sector encompasses the design, development, and manufacturing of space systems, including satellites, launchers, and ground equipment. The downstream sector focuses on the services and applications that are derived from these space-based assets, such as satellite broadcasting, navigation services, and Earth observation data analytics.

Historically, Europe’s industrial strength has been concentrated in the downstream application markets. European companies have excelled at transforming space data into valuable services for a wide range of public and commercial users. This focus on applications has been a key driver of European space policy, which has often prioritized the socio-economic benefits delivered by space systems. The global landscape is being reshaped by the emergence of vertically integrated business models, exemplified by SpaceX and its Starlink service. These companies control the entire value chain, from rocket manufacturing and satellite production to the final delivery of services to consumers. This integration effectively commoditizes the space infrastructure that many European downstream companies depend on, creating new competitive pressures.

While Europe possesses world-class technological innovation in areas like microelectronics and optical communications, this has not always translated into a commercial advantage, particularly in the upstream sector. The global upstream market is heavily dominated by US firms, limiting opportunities for European manufacturers. This is compounded by a relative lack of activity from Europe’s own technology leaders in the space domain and by mechanisms for technology transfer that are not sufficiently effective. This creates a dissonance where European innovation exists but fails to be commercialized effectively within the space sector itself.

Investment and Innovation: The “NewSpace” Challenge

The term “NewSpace” describes the global trend of increasing private sector involvement, driven by commercial motivations and an entrepreneurial investment philosophy. This movement has catalyzed a wave of innovation across Europe, leading to the creation of numerous start-ups and more than 10,000 new jobs over the last seven years. These new companies are a primary driver of the employment growth seen in the sector. Many of these ventures are in a pre-revenue stage, contributing to job figures without yet generating significant sales. This creates a potential vulnerability, as their survival depends on a continuous flow of investment.

A critical bottleneck for the European NewSpace ecosystem is access to finance, particularly scale-up funding. While venture capital has been the main engine of investment in the sector, there is a marked scarcity of later-stage funding required for companies to grow from promising start-ups into established market players. This “valley of death” is often longer for space ventures than for general tech companies, especially for those developing hardware. The lack of adequate scale-up capital frequently leads to a “flight of talent and companies to the US,” where a more mature and robust financing ecosystem exists. This represents a significant structural weakness for Europe’s long-term competitiveness.

The European Commission is actively working to address this funding gap through initiatives such as CASSINI (Competitive Space Start-ups for Innovation). This program includes a seed investment facility, a growth investment facility, and other financing mechanisms designed to support innovators, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and start-ups. The CASSINI matchmaking program, for instance, has supported 300 companies that have collectively succeeded in raising €2 billion in private investment, demonstrating the potential of targeted public support to unlock private capital.

Industry and Employment Structure

The European space manufacturing sector presents a picture of high concentration. The 30 largest industrial players account for nearly 70% of the sector’s total employment. The remaining smaller companies often operate as subcontractors within the supply chains of these established giants. This structure is now being complemented by the new wave of start-ups that have entered the market.

The rapid growth of these new ventures has created a competitive tension in the European space job market. The surge in demand for space-qualified engineers and technicians has led to a situation where large, historic players report difficulties in filling open positions. A direct consequence of this increased competition for talent is a rise in workforce costs. This, combined with broader inflationary pressures on materials and energy, is hampering the overall cost-competitiveness of European space systems on the global market.

This dynamic reveals a “growth paradox” within the European space economy. The data shows a significant increase in employment, driven almost entirely by venture capital-funded start-ups. At the same time, commercial sales and exports have been falling since 2017, with the institutional market now accounting for the vast majority of revenue for European companies. The global commercial growth, dominated by players like Starlink, does not benefit European satellite manufacturers. The rising employment figures are not an indicator of broad commercial health. Instead, they reflect a growing but fragile start-up ecosystem heavily reliant on early-stage investment. This ecosystem has not yet translated its potential into sustainable commercial revenue, creating a risk where job growth is disconnected from market share. This makes the sector vulnerable to shifts in venture capital sentiment or the failure of these start-ups to secure the scale-up funding they need to survive and thrive.

This situation also underscores Europe’s increasing reliance on its own government institutions as primary customers. The fact that public bodies now represent 70% of the market for European space companies is both a strategic strength and a commercial weakness. On one hand, the strong institutional market, fueled by the EU’s multi-billion-euro space program, guarantees a baseline of activity. It supports strategic autonomy, ensuring Europe can build and launch its own critical infrastructure like Galileo and Copernicus without depending on external partners. On the other hand, this inward focus risks making the European industry less competitive on the global commercial stage. The industry becomes highly optimized for serving institutional clients, who may prioritize performance and geographical return over cost, rather than competing with the aggressive, cost-cutting, and vertically integrated models of new commercial players. This creates a protected but potentially uncompetitive “fortress Europe” model, which secures autonomy at the potential expense of global commercial market share.

The European Space Agency (ESA): The Continental Anchor

At the very core of Europe’s collaborative space efforts is the European Space Agency (ESA). Created in 1975, ESA serves as the continent’s gateway to space, an intergovernmental organization with a clear mission: to shape the development of Europe’s space capability and ensure that investments in space deliver tangible benefits to the citizens of Europe and the world. It was founded on the principle of promoting cooperation among European states in space research, technology, and their applications for exclusively peaceful purposes. By coordinating the financial and intellectual resources of its members, ESA undertakes ambitious programs and activities that are far beyond the scope of any single European nation.

Mission and Structure

ESA’s role is to design, build, and operate the facilities and space missions necessary to keep Europe at the forefront of space activities. This encompasses a wide range of domains, including launchers, space science, robotic and human exploration, navigation, Earth observation, telecommunications, and space safety. The agency’s work is made possible through a distributed network of specialized centers located across its member states, each with a distinct focus.

The European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, is the technical heart of ESA, where most projects are born and guided through their development phases. The European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt, Germany, serves as the mission control for ESA’s fleet of spacecraft in orbit. The ESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN), located in Frascati, Italy, is the headquarters for the agency’s Earth observation activities. The European Astronaut Centre (EAC) in Cologne, Germany, is the home base for Europe’s astronaut corps, providing training for human spaceflight missions. Finally, Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana, provides a strategic and geographically advantageous launch site, giving the continent independent access to any orbit.

Governance and Funding Model

ESA is governed by a Council, which is composed of representatives from each of its Member States. This body provides the basic policy guidelines within which the agency develops the European space program. The agency’s funding model is a unique blend of mandatory and optional contributions, which allows for both collective action and national flexibility.

Mandatory Programmes are activities that all Member States are required to participate in. This includes the space science program and the agency’s general budget, which covers basic operational and administrative costs. Contributions to these programs are calculated based on each country’s Gross National Product (GNP). This ensures that all members contribute to the foundational scientific research and technological development that underpins all of ESA’s work.

Optional Programmes cover a wide range of other activities, such as Earth observation, telecommunications, satellite navigation, human and robotic exploration, and launcher development. Each Member State is free to decide whether or not to participate in an optional program and determines its own level of financial contribution. This à la carte system allows nations to invest in areas that align with their specific industrial priorities and strategic interests.

A cornerstone of ESA’s industrial policy, particularly for the optional programs, is the principle of juste retour, or “fair return.” This principle guarantees that the investments made by each Member State flow back to that country in the form of industrial contracts for its companies and research institutions. While this system is politically essential for securing broad financial support from a diverse group of nations, it also presents a structural challenge. The need to distribute work geographically to meet return quotas can sometimes lead to industrial inefficiencies compared to a purely commercially driven enterprise. A company like SpaceX can consolidate its supply chain to optimize for cost and efficiency, whereas ESA’s industrial base is, by design, spread across the continent. This was a foundational element for building a pan-European industrial capability, but it creates a structural disadvantage in the hyper-competitive NewSpace era, where cost is a primary driver.

A Constellation of Members

ESA’s strength lies in its diverse membership, which has grown significantly since its founding. The agency has a multi-tiered structure that allows for varying levels of cooperation and integration, providing a pathway for nations to gradually increase their involvement in European space activities.

• Member States: ESA currently has 23 full Member States. These nations have full voting rights in the ESA Council and can participate in all mandatory and optional programs.
• Associate Members: This is a seven-year status designed as a stepping stone toward full membership. Current Associate Members include Slovakia, Latvia, and Lithuania. They can participate in ESA’s optional programs, and their industries can bid for contracts, allowing them to build up their national space capabilities. This status includes a capability development funding scheme to help their industries integrate into the ESA ecosystem.
• European Cooperating States (ECS): This is a five-year agreement that prepares a country for potential associate or full membership. Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, and Malta are current European Cooperating States. The core of this arrangement is a Plan for European Cooperating State (PECS) charter, which is a program of activities aimed at stimulating the country’s space industry.
• Cooperation Agreements: This is the first formal step for a non-member state to begin collaborating with ESA. These agreements provide a framework for exchanging information and expertise. Canada has a long-standing and unique cooperation agreement that allows it to sit on the ESA Council and participate in certain programs.

Flagship Programmes: Securing European Autonomy

Several key programs managed by ESA are fundamental to Europe’s strategic autonomy and its ability to act as a global space power. These flagship initiatives in launch services, Earth observation, and navigation are not just technological achievements; they are critical infrastructure that underpins Europe’s economy, security, and scientific leadership.

Access to Space: Ariane 6 and Vega-C

The ability to independently launch satellites into orbit is the bedrock of any credible space policy. Without it, a nation or continent is dependent on the goodwill and availability of foreign partners, which can be subject to geopolitical pressures. For Europe, the Ariane and Vega families of launchers, operated from Europe’s Spaceport, are the physical guarantors of this autonomy.

Ariane 6 is Europe’s new-generation heavy-lift launcher, designed to replace the highly successful Ariane 5. Developed to be modular, flexible, and versatile, it comes in two configurations to serve a wide range of market needs. The Ariane 62 version, with two solid rocket boosters, is optimized for launching institutional payloads like scientific satellites or Galileo navigation satellites. The more powerful Ariane 64 version, with four boosters, is designed for the commercial market, capable of launching heavy telecommunications satellites or deploying entire constellations into multiple orbits. A key innovation of Ariane 6 is its reignitable upper stage, which allows for complex missions involving the delivery of multiple satellites to different orbital planes in a single flight.

Vega-C is the upgraded and more powerful successor to the Vega small launcher. It is specifically designed to meet the growing demand for launching small satellites, particularly for scientific and Earth observation missions, into low Earth and polar orbits. Vega-C offers significantly increased payload capacity and a larger fairing volume compared to its predecessor. It is equipped with a range of flexible payload adapters, including the Small Spacecraft Mission Service (SSMS) dispenser, which enables it to carry dozens of small satellites on a single rideshare mission. This adaptability makes it a key asset for serving the dynamic NewSpace market.

A notable feature of Europe’s new launch strategy is the industrial synergy between these two systems. The P120C solid rocket motor that serves as the first stage of the Vega-C is the very same motor used as the strap-on boosters for Ariane 6. This commonality is a deliberate strategic choice designed to increase production volumes, create economies of scale, and ultimately lower manufacturing costs. This represents a significant evolution in European industrial policy, moving from bespoke development for each launcher to a more integrated, platform-based approach. It is a direct response to the intense cost pressures of the modern launch market and demonstrates a strategic adaptation to remain competitive.

Earth’s Watchful Eye: The Copernicus Programme

Copernicus is the Earth observation component of the European Union’s Space Programme, and it stands as the most ambitious and comprehensive Earth observation program in the world. Managed by the European Commission in partnership with ESA, which is responsible for developing the space component, Copernicus provides a global, continuous, and autonomous stream of high-quality environmental data. It is the world’s largest single provider of “big” space data, all of which is made available on a full, free, and open basis to users worldwide.

The program’s space infrastructure is built around a dedicated fleet of satellites known as the “Sentinels.” Each Sentinel mission is a constellation of at least two satellites designed to provide robust and frequent coverage for specific observational needs. Sentinel-1 provides all-weather radar imagery, Sentinel-2 delivers high-resolution optical imagery, and Sentinel-3 monitors ocean and land parameters. This satellite data is complemented by information from other contributing space missions and a vast network of in-situ (ground-based, airborne, and seaborne) measurement systems.

This wealth of raw data is transformed by Copernicus into value-added information products and services across six thematic areas: Atmosphere Monitoring, Marine Environment Monitoring, Land Monitoring, Climate Change, Emergency Management, and Security. These services are used by public authorities, scientists, and businesses for a vast array of applications, from monitoring air quality and ocean currents to managing natural disasters, ensuring food security, and supporting border surveillance operations.

Navigating the Future: The Galileo Programme

Galileo is Europe’s independent Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), providing highly accurate and reliable positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services to users across the globe. The development of Galileo was a major strategic decision for Europe, driven by the desire to have a system under civilian control, ensuring sovereignty and independence from the military-controlled US Global Positioning System (GPS) and Russian GLONASS.

The Galileo system, which became operational in 2016, is fully interoperable with other GNSS constellations. This means that receivers capable of using multiple systems can combine signals from Galileo, GPS, and others to achieve greater accuracy and reliability, especially in challenging environments like dense urban canyons. By 2024, over 4 billion devices worldwide were Galileo-enabled.

Galileo offers several distinct services. The Open Service is free for everyone and provides positioning and timing information for mass-market applications like smartphone navigation. Other services include an encrypted Public Regulated Service (PRS) for government-authorized users who require robust and secure positioning, such as emergency services and military forces. A unique and life-saving feature of Galileo is its contribution to the Cospas-Sarsat international search and rescue system. Galileo satellites can detect distress signals from beacons and, importantly, are able to send a “return link” message back to the beacon, confirming to the person in distress that help is on the way.

The European Union’s Expanding Role in Space

While the European Space Agency has long been the primary driver of Europe’s technical and scientific achievements in space, the European Union has steadily evolved its role from a partner and customer into a major institutional actor with its own distinct strategic objectives. The EU’s involvement is not about replacing ESA but rather about leveraging space capabilities to achieve its broader political, economic, and security goals. This has led to the creation of a dedicated EU Space Programme and a specialized agency to manage its operational aspects.

From Policy to Programme

The European Union has formalized its space ambitions through the establishment of the EU Space Programme, a comprehensive framework that consolidates all of its space-related activities under a single regulation. For the 2021–2027 period, this program was allocated a budget of nearly €15 billion, the largest ever committed by the EU for space. This funding underscores the strategic importance the Union places on space as a critical enabler for its policies.

The primary goals of the EU Space Programme are to secure the EU’s leadership in space, foster a strong and innovative European space industry, safeguard the continent’s autonomous access to space, and ensure the long-term continuity and evolution of its flagship components: Copernicus (Earth observation), Galileo (global satellite navigation), and EGNOS (a regional satellite-based augmentation system). Beyond these established pillars, the program is also developing new security-focused components. These include Governmental Satellite Communications (GOVSATCOM) and a new secure connectivity constellation called IRIS², designed to provide reliable and secure communication services for government authorities. Another key area is Space Situational Awareness (SSA), which focuses on monitoring space hazards such as orbital debris and space weather to protect critical infrastructure both in orbit and on the ground.

EUSPA: Linking Space to the User

A pivotal development in the EU’s space governance was the transformation of the European GNSS Agency (GSA) into the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA) in 2021. This was far more than a simple name change; it represented a fundamental strategic shift in how the EU manages its space assets.

EUSPA’s core mission is to be the user-oriented, operational agency of the EU Space Programme. This creates a clear division of labor with ESA. While ESA continues to act as the primary design, development, and procurement agent—the technical expert responsible for building the satellites and ground systems—EUSPA is tasked with the day-to-day management of these systems once they are operational. EUSPA’s responsibilities include overseeing service provision, ensuring the security of the systems, and driving the market uptake and commercialization of the data and services they produce.

Specifically, EUSPA manages the service delivery of Galileo and EGNOS, operates the Galileo Security Monitoring Centre (GSMC) which controls access to the secure PRS signal, and works to promote the commercialization of data from both Galileo and Copernicus. Its mandate is to ensure that the massive public investment in Europe’s space infrastructure translates into tangible, real-world benefits for European citizens, businesses, and public authorities.

The creation and expansion of EUSPA signifies a important pivot in the EU’s strategic thinking. Historically, the Union acted primarily as a customer, defining its needs and delegating the technical implementation to ESA. The establishment of a dedicated operational agency marks the EU’s transition to becoming an operator of critical sovereign infrastructure. This reflects a political realization that systems like Galileo and Copernicus are not merely scientific or industrial projects; they are essential public utilities and instruments of statecraft, vital to Europe’s economic resilience and security. This separation of roles—ESA focusing on how to build things for space, and EUSPA focusing on what Europe gets from space—demonstrates a maturation of the continent’s approach, recognizing space as an operational domain that must be actively managed to serve the Union’s strategic interests.

National Ambitions: A Country-by-Country Review

While pan-European institutions like ESA and the EU provide a powerful framework for collaboration, the European space landscape is also defined by the distinct ambitions and capabilities of its individual nations. From the major space powers with decades of heritage to emerging nations just beginning their journey, each country contributes to the continental ecosystem in its own way. National space agencies and coordinating bodies are responsible for implementing national strategies, managing contributions to ESA, and fostering domestic industrial and scientific communities. The following table provides an overview of the institutional landscape across Europe, followed by a detailed review of each nation’s space strategy and objectives.

Albania

Albania does not currently have a national space agency or a formal cooperation agreement with the European Space Agency. The country’s engagement with the space sector is nascent, with activities primarily concentrated within academic and research institutions. While there is no overarching national space strategy, Albanian entities may participate in broader European research frameworks that have space-related components, such as Horizon Europe. The country’s path to greater involvement in the European space ecosystem would likely begin with establishing formal ties to ESA, possibly through a Cooperation Agreement, which would provide a framework for exchanging information and identifying areas for future collaboration.

Andorra

The Principality of Andorra does not have a national space agency and has not established any formal agreements with the European Space Agency. Its involvement in the space sector is minimal, reflecting the nation’s small size and specialized economy. Any future engagement would likely be focused on downstream applications, such as using satellite data for environmental monitoring in its mountainous terrain or for telecommunications, rather than developing upstream industrial capabilities.

Austria

Associated Space Agency

Austria’s space activities are managed by the Aeronautics and Space Agency, which is part of the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG). The FFG is the national funding agency for industrial research and development in Austria and acts as a “one-stop shop” for businesses and research institutions seeking access to research funding. The Aeronautics and Space Agency within FFG is responsible for implementing the national space strategy and representing Austria’s interests at the European Space Agency, of which Austria is a full Member State.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Austrian Space Strategy 2030+ outlines an ambitious vision for the nation’s role in the space sector, structured around six primary goals. These objectives reflect a holistic approach that balances economic competitiveness with social and environmental responsibility.

1. Sustainable Development on Earth and in Space: Austria positions itself as a pioneer in sustainability, using its expertise to support climate goals and the UN Sustainable Development Goals through space technologies. This includes a commitment to the long-term sustainability of space activities, such as space traffic management and debris mitigation.
2. Competitive Space Sector: The strategy focuses on fostering a highly innovative space sector that creates high-value jobs. It supports Austrian companies and research institutes in developing competitive products for the international market, particularly in satellite, launcher, and ground infrastructure value chains.
3. Scientific Excellence: Austria seeks to strengthen its commitment to space sciences, including astronomy, planetary sciences, and space-based geosciences, ensuring its research community remains a key contributor to international scientific exploration.
4. Space for All Areas of Life: A central goal is to integrate space-based data and signals into the everyday life of Austrians. This involves promoting the use of satellite data for innovative solutions in climate change mitigation, mobility, environmental monitoring, and disaster management, supporting both the green and digital transformations of society.
5. Talent and Diversity: The strategy recognizes the need for a skilled workforce and promotes space-related education and training to ensure a sufficient supply of talent for the growing sector.
6. Space Dialogue with the Population: This goal focuses on public outreach to raise awareness of the importance of the space sector in daily life, using the inspirational power of space to engage citizens.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Austria’s space industry has developed niche expertise in several high-tech areas. Austrian companies are key suppliers of components for both the Ariane and Vega launcher programs. The country has also made significant contributions to scientific missions, developing instruments for international projects exploring planets and observing the Earth. Through its participation in ESA’s optional programs, Austria focuses on areas like Earth observation, satellite navigation, and telecommunications, ensuring its industry remains integrated into major European supply chains.

Belgium

Associated Space Agency

Belgium’s space policy is overseen by the Belgian Science Policy Office (BELSPO), also known as the Federal Science Policy. BELSPO’s Department of Space Research and Applications is responsible for managing the country’s space programs, which include scientific research, industrial policy, and technology development. As a founding member of ESA, Belgium is a significant contributor to the European space effort and plays an active role in shaping its direction.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Belgian space policy is built upon four foundational anchor points that guide its investments and activities:

1. Scientific Research: Fostering high-level scientific exploration and research is a core tenet, ensuring the Belgian academic community is involved in cutting-edge space science.
2. Social Utility: The policy emphasizes the sustainable application of space technology to benefit society, addressing challenges in areas like environmental monitoring, security, and communications.
3. Industrial Development: A key objective is to support the growth and competitiveness of the Belgian space industry, ensuring it remains a vital part of European supply chains.
4. Economic Interest: The policy seeks to maximize the economic return on public investment in space, promoting commercial activities and job creation.

Belgium’s approach is deeply rooted in international cooperation, primarily through its participation in ESA. The country is ESA’s fifth-largest donor, with a contribution of €296 million in 2024. This investment allows Belgian industry and research centers to participate in a wide range of programs. The policy is also regularly updated to adapt to new trends, such as the emergence of “NewSpace” companies.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Belgium has a long history in space and has developed a highly skilled industrial base with specific areas of excellence. Belgian companies are renowned for their expertise in satellite platforms, optical instruments, and ground station equipment. The country is a key participant in major European programs like Copernicus, Galileo, and the Ariane and Vega launcher families.

A notable Belgian asset is the European Space Security and Education Centre (ESEC) located in Redu. This ESA facility is a center for space cybersecurity services and hosts part of ESA’s satellite tracking network. Belgium has also been a pioneer in space law, adopting national legislation in 2005 to create a clear legal framework for space activities conducted under its jurisdiction. This legislation ensures legal certainty for operators and defines liability, making Belgium an attractive location for space-related businesses.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina does not currently have a national space agency or any formal cooperation agreement with the European Space Agency. The country’s engagement in the space sector is very limited. Participation in the European space ecosystem would require the establishment of a national coordinating body and the development of a strategy to identify areas of potential interest, which could include downstream applications of satellite data for agriculture, environmental management, or disaster response.

Bulgaria

Associated Space Agency

Bulgaria’s space activities are primarily coordinated through the Space Research and Technology Institute (SRTI-BAS) at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. The institute has a long history of space research, dating back to its participation in the Soviet Union’s Interkosmos program. Bulgaria is currently a European Cooperating State (ECS) of ESA, a status it achieved in 2022. This agreement is designed to stimulate the development of its national space industry and prepare it for deeper integration with ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

As an ECS, Bulgaria’s primary strategic objective is to develop its industrial and scientific capacity to a level where it can successfully participate in ESA programs. The Plan for European Cooperating State (PECS) charter, which accompanies the ECS agreement, outlines a five-year program of activities focused on this goal. The strategy involves identifying niche areas where Bulgarian industry and research institutions have existing strengths and can develop competitive capabilities. Key areas of interest include space physics, remote sensing, life sciences, and the development of specialized instrumentation. The ultimate goal is to transition from an ECS to an Associate Member and eventually a full Member State of ESA.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Bulgaria’s space heritage includes the development of numerous instruments for scientific missions, particularly in the field of space physics and life sciences. Bulgarian scientists were involved in experiments flown on Soviet space stations. Under the PECS program, Bulgarian companies and research centers can now bid for ESA contracts, providing them with opportunities to integrate into European supply chains. The focus is on small-scale projects that allow for technology transfer and capacity building. This includes developing components for scientific instruments, software for data analysis, and applications using data from programs like Copernicus and Galileo.

Croatia

Associated Space Agency

Croatia does not have an official government space agency. Space-related activities and advocacy are largely driven by non-governmental organizations like the Croatian Space Foundation. The country became a European Cooperating State (ECS) of ESA in 2023, formalizing its path toward greater integration with the European space sector. The Ministry of Science and Education is the national body that signed the agreement with ESA and oversees its implementation.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Croatia’s main space policy objective is to leverage its ECS status to build a competitive national space ecosystem. The PECS charter outlines a five-year plan to develop the capabilities of Croatian companies and research institutions. The strategy focuses on fostering innovation in areas where Croatia has potential strengths, such as software development, data analytics, and niche engineering. By participating in ESA projects, Croatia seeks to facilitate technology transfer, create high-tech jobs, and encourage the growth of a domestic space industry. The long-term vision is to become a full member of ESA.

Key Programmes and Contributions

As a new ECS, Croatia’s participation in ESA programs is just beginning. The initial focus is on enabling Croatian entities to participate in ESA procurements. This will likely involve small-scale R&D projects, software development for space applications, and the use of Earth observation data for national needs like maritime surveillance, agriculture, and tourism. The country’s strong IT sector is seen as a potential asset for developing downstream applications based on Copernicus and Galileo data.

Cyprus

Associated Space Agency

The Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation (CSEO) is a non-governmental, non-profit organization that has played a key role in developing the country’s space sector and coordinating its international engagement. Cyprus is a European Cooperating State (ECS) of ESA, having signed its first ECS agreement in 2016 and a renewed “ECS+” agreement in 2022. The Department of Electronic Communications within the government acts as the executive arm for implementing the agreement.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Cyprus’s national space strategy is focused on leveraging its geographical location, strong research community, and growing high-tech sector to carve out a niche in the global space economy. The primary objectives are to:

• Place Cyprus on the global space industry map.
• Promote research and development in space exploration and related technologies.
• Develop a local market for space-related products and services.
• Foster collaboration between academia and industry.
• Use space to inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers.

The ECS+ agreement with ESA is the main tool for achieving these goals, providing a framework for Cypriot entities to participate in ESA programs and develop their technical and industrial capabilities.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Under its PECS program, Cyprus has focused on developing expertise in areas such as satellite communications, remote sensing, and space science. The country’s strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean makes it an ideal site for ground stations and satellite tracking activities. CSEO has also been active in fostering international cooperation, for example, by hosting the Mars Upper Atmosphere Network (MUAN), a collaboration involving NASA and other international partners. Cypriot companies and research institutions are participating in ESA projects related to Earth observation applications, satellite communications technology, and space science instrumentation.

Czech Republic

Associated Space Agency

The Czech Republic does not have a single national space agency. Instead, its space activities are coordinated by the Ministry of Transport, in close cooperation with other ministries, including Industry and Trade, and Education, Youth, and Sport. A Coordination Council for Space Activities, composed of representatives from these ministries, guides the implementation of the national space policy. The Czech Republic became a full Member State of ESA in 2008.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The National Space Plan 2020–2025 sets out the strategy for the Czech Republic’s space activities. The plan is built on two main objectives:

1. Building Czech Space Capacities for Excellence and Competitiveness: This involves creating a supportive environment for Czech companies and research institutions to innovate and compete internationally. The strategy emphasizes developing capabilities to supply more complex components for satellites and launchers, moving up the value chain from components to entire instruments or subsystems. It also focuses on technology transfer, intellectual property protection, and fostering closer collaboration between academia and industry.
2. Active Position in International Relations: The plan seeks to increase the visibility and influence of the Czech Republic on the European and global stage. This is primarily achieved through active participation in ESA and EU space programs, as well as strengthening bilateral cooperation with other space-faring nations.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Since joining ESA, the Czech space industry has experienced significant growth. Czech companies have become recognized suppliers in the supply chains for major European programs, including the Ariane and Vega launchers and various satellite missions. The country has developed expertise in areas such as optical systems, advanced materials, software, and electronics for space applications. The Czech Republic is also the host country for the headquarters of EUSPA in Prague, a testament to its commitment to the European space program and its central role in satellite navigation activities.

Denmark

Associated Space Agency

Denmark does not have a traditional national space agency. Its space-related research and development activities are primarily centered at the National Space Institute at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU Space). DTU Space is Denmark’s largest space research environment and serves as a key advisor to the Danish government on space matters. Denmark is a founding member of ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Danish Strategy for Space Research and Innovation 2025–2035 outlines a vision to leverage space technologies to address major societal challenges, drive the green transition, and enhance global competitiveness. The strategy is built around several key initiatives:

1. Strengthening National Research and Innovation: Denmark is committed to enhancing its capabilities in key space technologies, including satellite systems, quantum communication, and AI-driven data analysis. The goal is to position Danish research institutions and companies as global leaders.
2. Promoting National Space Missions: A key element of the strategy is to finance up to four Danish-led space missions by 2035. These missions are intended to advance Denmark’s technical capabilities and address specific scientific challenges, such as improving climate modeling.
3. Enhancing International Collaboration: Denmark will deepen its participation in international initiatives, strengthening ties with partners like NASA and ESA and expanding its involvement in EU programs such as Copernicus and Galileo.
4. Commercializing Space Research: The strategy prioritizes translating scientific discoveries into commercial applications to position Danish companies at the forefront of the “New Space Economy,” particularly in areas like satellite data services and sustainable technologies.
5. Protecting Danish Space Technology: The strategy emphasizes the need to secure Danish research and technology from espionage and unwanted transfers while maintaining a dynamic and open international research environment.

Key Programmes and Contributions

DTU Space has a long and distinguished history of contributing to international space missions. It has developed and built scientific instruments for over 100 missions in collaboration with NASA and ESA, exploring Mars, Jupiter, and the Sun. Danish expertise is particularly strong in the development of star cameras for satellite navigation, magnetometers for measuring magnetic fields, and radar systems for climate monitoring. Climate monitoring, especially in the Arctic, is a key focus area, with Danish researchers using satellite data to measure the melting of ice sheets and predict sea-level rise. Denmark also contributes to space-related security, with research into GPS jamming and spoofing and the development of satellite sensors for surveillance.

Estonia

Associated Space Agency

Estonia’s space activities are coordinated by the Estonian Space Office, which is part of Enterprise Estonia, the country’s national foundation for business and regional development. This structure reflects Estonia’s focus on the economic and commercial aspects of the space sector. Estonia became a full Member State of ESA in 2015.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Estonian Space Policy and Program 2020-2027 is the guiding document for the nation’s space activities. Given Estonia’s global reputation as a leader in digital governance and cybersecurity, its space strategy has a strong focus in these areas. The policy recognizes the increasing reliance of critical infrastructure on space-based systems and the corresponding need to protect these assets from cyber threats. Key objectives include:

• Developing national space legislation to provide legal certainty for businesses.
• Applying Estonia’s cybersecurity expertise to space-based assets, including both satellites and ground stations.
• Fostering a domestic space industry that can compete in niche markets.
• Using space to inspire and develop a skilled workforce for the high-tech sector.

The strategy also acknowledges the challenge of creating a regulatory environment that encourages innovation without being overly restrictive, particularly in a rapidly evolving sector.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Estonia has successfully carved out a niche for itself in the space sector. The country is known for its student-led satellite projects, ESTCube-1 and ESTCube-2, which have provided valuable hands-on experience for a new generation of engineers. Estonian companies have developed expertise in areas such as Earth observation data processing, electronics, and software for space systems. A key contribution to European security is Estonia’s role in space cybersecurity. The country has leveraged its advanced cyber capabilities to support space programs, using its NATO-accredited cyber range to test and validate defense tools for space systems. This focus on protecting space infrastructure from cyber-attack is a unique and valuable specialization within the European space ecosystem.

Finland

Associated Space Agency

Finland’s national space policy is coordinated by the Finnish Space Committee, which operates under the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment. The committee is a cross-sectoral body that includes representatives from various ministries and key stakeholders. This structure ensures that space activities are aligned with broader national goals. Finland became a full Member State of ESA in 1995.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Finland’s Space Strategy 2018-2025 set an ambitious vision: to make Finland the world’s most attractive and agile space business environment. The strategy was built on three pillars: creating favorable conditions for market access, strengthening international influence, and promoting high-quality research.

A new strategy for the period up to 2030 was adopted in late 2024 to address the significant changes in the geopolitical and technological landscape. The updated strategy emphasizes:

• Utilization of Space Services: A key objective is to promote the use of space services across all sectors of society to enhance efficiency, safety, and sustainability. This includes applications in areas like transport, energy, and agriculture to support the clean transition.
• Security and Defence: The new strategy places a much stronger emphasis on the needs of security, defence, and security of supply actors. Space services are seen as a vital component of Finland’s comprehensive security, particularly given its membership in NATO.
• Favorable Operating Environment: Finland continues to focus on building a supportive ecosystem for its space industry, which has seen its turnover triple between 2018 and 2022. This includes maintaining modern space legislation that promotes sustainable practices.
• International Cooperation: While fostering national capabilities, the strategy recognizes that international cooperation, particularly through ESA and the EU, remains essential.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Finland has a rapidly growing and highly innovative space sector. The country is a leader in the development of small satellites and related technologies. The company ICEYE, for example, operates the world’s largest constellation of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellites, providing all-weather Earth observation capabilities. Finnish industry has also developed expertise in areas such as electronics for space applications, atmospheric measurement instruments, and software. The launch of the first Finnish satellite, Aalto-1, in 2017, marked a turning point, signaling a shift from primarily participating in ESA programs to also developing national and commercial missions.

France

Associated Space Agency

France’s space policy is shaped and executed by the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). Founded in 1961, CNES is one of the world’s oldest and most influential space agencies. It functions as a programmatic agency, a technical expert center, and a government operator, encompassing all the functions needed to implement the nation’s space strategy. With a per capita spending on civil space activities that is the second highest in the world, France is a leading European space power and a key contributor to ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

French space strategy is ambitious and comprehensive, guided by four overarching goals:

1. Strategic Independence: The cornerstone of French space policy since its early days is the guaranteed autonomous access to space for both France and Europe. This principle drove the development of the national Diamant launcher, which made France the third country to reach space, and continues today through its leadership in the Ariane launcher program.
2. Scientific Excellence: CNES actively promotes the involvement of French research in major international space missions. This includes national projects like the MicroCarb satellite for monitoring CO₂ and bilateral missions like the SVOM gamma-ray burst detector developed with China.
3. A Competitive Space Ecosystem: The strategy is focused on supporting the rapid transformation of the French space sector, fostering innovation, and sowing the seeds of a new space economy by working with companies of all sizes.
4. A Sustainable World: France leverages its space capabilities for climate science and environmental monitoring, building on a long legacy of pioneering Earth observation missions like SPOT and the Jason series of oceanography satellites.

In addition to these civil goals, France’s 2019 Space Defence Strategy explicitly identifies space as a “new front” that must be defended, highlighting the dual-use nature of many space assets and the need to protect them from hostile acts.

Key Programmes and Contributions

France’s contributions to the European and global space sectors are extensive. CNES is the primary government operator of Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana, the launch site for Ariane and Vega. It is a key industrial and technical partner in the development of the Ariane 6 launcher. The French space industry is a world leader in satellite manufacturing and has made significant contributions to nearly every major European scientific and application program, including Copernicus and Galileo. France is also a major partner in international space exploration, collaborating closely with NASA on Mars missions like the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers, and with ISRO on the Megha-Tropiques climate mission.

Germany

Associated Space Agency

Germany’s national center for aerospace, energy, and transportation research is the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, or DLR). Founded in 1969, the DLR acts as Germany’s space agency, responsible for planning and implementing the German space program on behalf of the federal government. It operates an extensive network of research institutes across the country and manages Germany’s significant contributions to ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The German Federal Government’s Space Strategy, updated in 2023, is a comprehensive plan designed to address a changed geopolitical landscape and leverage space to tackle global challenges. The strategy is guided by three overarching goals: improving life on Earth, shaping a sustainable space environment, and exploring and opening up space. These goals are pursued through nine key areas of activity:

1. European and International Cooperation: This is a fundamental pillar of German policy, with a focus on collaboration within ESA, EUMETSAT, and the EU.
2. Space as a Growth Market: The strategy aims to foster a competitive and innovative “NewSpace” ecosystem, with a focus on supporting small satellite initiatives and microlaunchers.
3. Climate and Environmental Protection: Space programs are seen as indispensable for providing data to monitor climate change and support environmental protection, in line with initiatives like the EU’s Green Deal.
4. Digitalisation and Downstream Applications: The strategy emphasizes the importance of data availability and the development of downstream applications and services.
5. Security and Global Stability: Recognizing the dual-use nature of space, Germany is expanding its national capabilities for space situational awareness to protect its infrastructure.
6. Sustainable and Safe Use of Space: Germany is a strong advocate for space traffic management and is preparing a national Space Act to ensure the long-term sustainability of space activities.
7. Space Research: The strategy supports fundamental scientific research to drive innovation and technology transfer.
8. International Space Exploration: Germany is a key partner in international exploration missions, particularly the Artemis program for returning to the Moon.
9. Recruiting and Attracting Talent: The strategy includes initiatives to inspire young people to pursue careers in STEM fields.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Germany is a powerhouse in the European space sector and the largest contributor to the ESA budget. The German space industry has a broad range of capabilities, with particular strengths in satellite manufacturing, scientific instrumentation, robotics, and ground systems. Germany is a leading participant in the Copernicus program and has developed several of its Sentinel satellites. It is also a major contributor to the Galileo program and the Ariane 6 launcher. In space exploration, Germany is a key partner in the International Space Station, having built the Columbus laboratory module. It is also providing the European Service Module for NASA’s Orion spacecraft, a critical component for the Artemis missions to the Moon. The DLR also operates its own national Earth observation missions, such as TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X, which provide high-resolution radar imagery.

Greece

Associated Space Agency

The Hellenic Space Center (HSC) is the national body responsible for formulating and implementing Greece’s space strategy. Established to coordinate the country’s space activities, the HSC works with the scientific community and both the public and private sectors to define targets and manage national space projects. Greece has been a full Member State of ESA since 2005.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Hellenic Space Center’s mandate covers a broad range of responsibilities aimed at developing a robust national space ecosystem. Its key objectives are:

• Develop a National Space Strategy: The HSC is tasked with creating a national strategy and a dynamic action plan to guide the country’s space efforts.
• Coordinate National Projects: It manages national programs in all space sectors, including scientific research, telecommunications, security, and environmental monitoring.
• Promote Industrial and Economic Growth: A central goal is to contribute to the development of technology and space applications that benefit the national industry and research communities, thereby strengthening the economy.
• Foster International Cooperation: The HSC represents Greece in European and international organizations, developing partnerships to maximize the benefits of participation in programs like those of ESA and the EU.
• Support Education and Training: The agency works to train students, researchers, and public officials in space-related fields and to raise public awareness of space activities.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Greece is leveraging its ESA membership and funding from the EU’s Recovery and Resilience Facility to significantly enhance its space capabilities. A major national initiative is the Greek National Satellite Space Project, which aims to develop, produce, and launch a constellation of small satellites for secure connectivity and various services, including Earth observation. This program, managed by ESA, involves a significant number of Greek universities and industrial partners, demonstrating a commitment to building domestic capacity.

As part of this project, Greece is also developing the Hellenic Assembly, Integration and Testing Facility (HAITF) and upgrading three astronomical observatories into state-of-the-art optical ground stations. This infrastructure will support future high-speed optical and quantum communications. The national small satellite program, with a budget of €200 million, will provide data to public agencies for applications such as monitoring natural disasters, detecting unauthorized construction, tracking marine pollution, and supporting precision agriculture.

Hungary

Associated Space Agency

Hungary does not have a standalone national space agency. Its space policy is coordinated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, which reflects the country’s view of space activities as a tool for economic development and international relations. Hungary became a full Member State of ESA in 2015.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Hungary adopted its first national space strategy in 2021, with the vision of becoming a relevant and internationally integrated player in the space sector. The strategy is built on three mutually supportive objectives:

1. Stimulate Innovation and Economic Growth: The primary goal is to use the space sector as a catalyst for innovation and to contribute to the sustainable growth of the national economy.
2. Strengthen Hungary’s International Role: The strategy focuses on broadening Hungary’s network of international partnerships and creating opportunities for cooperation with other space agencies and leading space companies.
3. Create a Conducive Social and Economic Environment: This involves building the necessary domestic conditions, including human capital and a supportive business environment, to enhance the development of the space sector.

A key and highly visible element of this strategy is the “Hungarian to Orbit” (HUNOR) astronaut program.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Hungary has a long heritage in space research, particularly in space physics and instrumentation. Hungarian companies and research institutes have developed expertise in areas such as radiation measurement, electronics, and software for space applications. They are active participants in several major ESA scientific missions, including BepiColombo to Mercury, JUICE to Jupiter, and the future Mars Sample Return mission. Hungarian instruments are also used on the International Space Station and are planned for the lunar Gateway.

The HUNOR program, conducted in cooperation with Axiom Space, is a major national undertaking. The program aims to send a Hungarian research astronaut to the International Space Station for a 30-day mission to conduct a series of Hungarian-developed scientific experiments. This mission is seen as a way to create a “space heritage” for the entire Hungarian space sector, inspiring the next generation and providing a significant boost to the country’s research and industrial capabilities.

Iceland

Associated Space Agency

The Iceland Space Agency (ISA) is a privately organized entity that works in close collaboration with the University of Iceland and the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation to develop and map the country’s space sector. Iceland does not have a formal agreement with the European Space Agency, and its space activities are primarily focused on research, logistical support for international partners, and leveraging its unique geology for planetary analog studies.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The mission of the ISA is to facilitate and coordinate space-related activities in Iceland. Its objectives are to:

• Develop Iceland-based research and innovation initiatives.
• Advise on national space policy.
• Provide operational logistics and research support for foreign organizations, academia, and private companies conducting space-related work in Iceland.

A significant focus of Iceland’s space strategy is its role as a premier location for terrestrial analog research. The country’s volcanic landscapes, glaciers, and geological formations provide high-fidelity analogs for the surfaces of the Moon and Mars.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Iceland’s primary contribution to the international space community is through its analog research sites. The ISA manages the MÁNI terrestrial analog sites, which are used for research, testing, and training in areas such as surface mobility, space architecture, human-robot teaming, and in-situ resource utilization. The agency provides logistical and research support to international partners, including NASA. The NASA-funded DIGMARS project, for example, uses Icelandic lakes in basaltic terrain to study surface and groundwater processes on early Mars. The ISA has also supported the testing of prototype spacesuits in its lunar and Martian analog environments.

Ireland

Associated Space Agency

Ireland does not have a dedicated national space agency. The responsibility for coordinating national space policy and managing Ireland’s membership in ESA falls to Enterprise Ireland, the government agency responsible for the development and growth of Irish enterprises in world markets. This arrangement underscores Ireland’s enterprise-led approach to the space sector. Ireland has been a full Member State of ESA since 1975.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Ireland’s first National Space Strategy for Enterprise, covering the period up to 2025, sets out a clear vision for growing the country’s space sector. The strategy is focused on maximizing the economic benefits of Ireland’s investment in ESA and EU space programs. It outlines six ambitious goals:

1. Double Space-Related Revenue and Employment: A core objective is to significantly grow the economic footprint of the Irish space sector.
2. Support 100 Companies in ESA Networks: The strategy aims to increase the number of Irish companies actively engaged with ESA.
3. Double the Value of EU Horizon Programme Contracts: This goal seeks to enhance the success of Irish entities in securing competitive EU research funding.
4. Increase Awareness of Space Activities: The plan includes efforts to raise the profile of Ireland’s space activities both domestically and internationally.
5. Develop and Attract Talent: A key focus is on building the skilled workforce needed to support the growing industry.
6. Develop a Sustainable Earth Observation Services Sector: The strategy identifies Earth observation data analytics as a key area for growth.

Key Programmes and Contributions

The number of Irish companies working under contract with ESA has grown significantly, from 35 in 2008 to over 67 in 2018. The Irish space industry has developed specialized capabilities in a number of high-tech areas, including software for space systems, electronics, advanced materials, and optoelectronics. Irish technology is flying on numerous ESA missions, including the Solar Orbiter and the JUICE mission to Jupiter. The country’s strong ICT sector provides a solid foundation for the development of downstream applications using data from Copernicus and Galileo. The strategy’s focus on enterprise and innovation has enabled a growing number of Irish SMEs and start-ups to enter the space market.

Italy

Associated Space Agency

The Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, or ASI), established in 1988, is one of the world’s leading space agencies. It is responsible for defining and implementing Italy’s national space policy, operating under the supervision of the government. As the third-largest contributor to the European Space Agency, Italy is a major player in shaping and executing European space programs.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Italy’s national space strategy, outlined in government guidelines and ASI’s strategic plans, is comprehensive and ambitious. It aims to leverage the space sector as a key engine for the country’s growth, innovation, and strategic positioning. The strategy is built on several key pillars:

• Expansion of Knowledge and Societal Benefits: The strategy emphasizes investment in scientific research, innovation, and STEM education to maintain Italy’s leadership in space science and exploration.
• Growth and Competitiveness of the National Industry: A central goal is to support the entire Italian space industrial value chain, from large enterprises to SMEs and start-ups, enhancing their competitiveness on the global market. The strategy promotes the development of the “Space Economy,” aiming to extend the impact of space activities to the broader industrial system.
• Effective Regulatory Environment: Italy has developed a national “Space Law” to provide a modern regulatory framework for private sector space activities, aligning with international standards and promoting the sustainable use of space.
• International Collaboration: The strategy prioritizes strong international partnerships, both multilaterally through ESA and the EU, and bilaterally with key partners like the United States, France, and Germany.
• Defence and Security: The strategy recognizes space as a critical domain for national security and aims to protect national space assets, ensure resilient space systems, and develop capabilities for space situational awareness.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Italy has a complete and highly advanced space industry with end-to-end capabilities, from launcher and satellite production to ground segment operations and downstream services. The country is a leader in the development of the Vega launcher family, with the Italian company Avio serving as the prime contractor.

In Earth observation, Italy operates the COSMO-SkyMed constellation of radar satellites, a flagship national program with dual civil and military use. It is also developing the IRIDE constellation, one of Europe’s most ambitious space-based Earth observation programs. In space exploration, Italy has been a important partner in the International Space Station, having built several of its pressurized modules, including the Cupola observation dome. The country is also a key contributor to NASA’s Artemis program, providing essential elements for the Orion spacecraft’s European Service Module and developing a lunar habitation module. Italian scientific instruments are flying on numerous international missions, including Cassini-Huygens to Saturn, Mars Express, and the DART planetary defense test mission, for which Italy provided the LICIACube observer spacecraft.

Latvia

Associated Space Agency

Latvia does not have a dedicated national space agency. Its space policy and participation in ESA are coordinated by the Ministry of Education and Science, in close cooperation with the Ministry of Economics. Latvia became an Associate Member of ESA in 2020, a significant step that has provided a strong impetus for the development of its space sector.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Latvian Space Strategy 2021–2027 defines the country’s vision and goals for its space activities. The strategy is focused on leveraging its ESA Associate Membership to build a competitive and innovative national space ecosystem. The four main priorities are:

1. Education and Skills Development: The strategy emphasizes the development of human capital by supporting higher education programs in space-related fields, providing training for professionals, and promoting STEM education in schools.
2. International Cooperation and Supply Chain Integration: A key objective is to integrate Latvian companies and research institutions into European and international space supply chains through participation in ESA programs.
3. Scientific Research and Engineering Development: The strategy supports the development of national research and engineering capabilities in niche areas where Latvia can build a competitive advantage.
4. Development of Public Services: This priority focuses on using satellite data and services to improve public administration and address national needs, such as environmental monitoring and infrastructure management.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Since becoming an ESA Associate Member, Latvia has seen rapid growth in its space sector. The country has invested over €23 million in ESA programs, resulting in more than 100 projects. Latvian companies and research institutions have developed expertise in areas such as electronics, materials science, and Earth observation data applications. For example, the company Allatherm is developing a xenon pump for the future Lunar Gateway space station. National projects are also underway, such as using satellite data to combat illegal construction.

To foster innovation, Latvia has established an ESA Business Incubation Centre (ESA BIC Latvia) to support space start-ups. The country is also planning to establish a European Space Education Resource Office (ESERO) to further promote space education.

Liechtenstein

The Principality of Liechtenstein does not have a national space agency or a formal agreement with the European Space Agency. Its participation in the space sector is primarily through its highly specialized industrial companies, which may act as suppliers of high-precision components to the broader European space industry. While not a formal space-faring nation, Liechtenstein is a signatory of the Artemis Accords, indicating an interest in the principles of peaceful and cooperative international space exploration.

Lithuania

Associated Space Agency

Lithuania’s space activities are primarily coordinated by the Lithuanian Space Association (LSA), a non-governmental organization founded in 2009. The LSA works to promote the development of the space sector in Lithuania and represents the country’s interests in international forums. Lithuania became an Associate Member of ESA in 2021, which has provided a significant boost to its national space ecosystem.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

As an Associate Member of ESA, Lithuania’s main strategic objective is to develop its scientific and industrial capabilities to a level that allows for successful participation in European space programs and the global space market. The strategy focuses on:

• Fostering a national ecosystem of space-related companies and research institutions.
• Developing expertise in niche technology areas where Lithuania has existing strengths.
• Using participation in ESA programs as a means for technology transfer and capacity building.
• Inspiring a new generation of scientists and engineers through national satellite projects and educational outreach.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Lithuania has a notable history in the development of small satellites. The country successfully launched its first two satellites, LitSat-1 and Lituanica SAT-1, in 2014. These projects, largely driven by university teams, provided invaluable experience and spurred the growth of a commercial space sector. The company NanoAvionics, a spin-off from one of these early satellite projects, has become a global leader in the manufacturing of small satellite buses and mission integration services. Lithuanian industry has also developed capabilities in areas such as laser technology, electronics, and software, which are being applied to space systems.

Luxembourg

Associated Space Agency

The Luxembourg Space Agency (LSA), established in 2018, is unique among European space agencies. It is structured more like a private enterprise than a traditional government body, with a primary mission to develop and diversify Luxembourg’s economy through commercial space activities. This business-oriented approach has positioned Luxembourg as a leading hub for the “NewSpace” industry. Luxembourg is a full Member State of ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Luxembourg’s space strategy is sharply focused on creating a world-leading ecosystem for commercial space ventures. Its key priorities are:

• In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): Luxembourg has been a global pioneer in the field of space resource utilization, often referred to as “space mining.” It was the first country in Europe to establish a legal and regulatory framework for the ownership and use of resources extracted in space, providing legal certainty for commercial companies in this emerging field.
• Space Finance and Investment: The strategy aims to leverage Luxembourg’s status as a major international financial center to attract private investment into the space sector.
• Defence and Security: The 2022 Defence Space Strategy focuses on developing dual-use space capabilities to enhance national and allied security. This includes investments in secure satellite communications and high-resolution Earth observation.
• Economic Diversification: The overarching goal is to grow the space sector’s contribution to the national GDP, with a plan to double it from 2% to 4% by 2027.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Luxembourg has a long history in the space sector, being the home of SES, one of the world’s largest satellite operators. The LSA has built on this heritage to foster a vibrant commercial space ecosystem. Key national programs include:

• GovSat: A public-private partnership between the Luxembourg government and SES that provides secure, reliable satellite communication services to governments and institutional users.
• MGS (Medium Earth Orbit Global Services): A defence project to acquire secure, high-throughput satellite communication capacity from the SES O3b mPOWER constellation.
• LUXEOSys/NAOS: A national high-resolution optical Earth observation satellite, scheduled for launch in mid-2025, which will serve defence, security, and civilian needs.

Luxembourg is also a founding signatory of the Artemis Accords and works closely with ESA and NASA on research and development related to ISRU. The country hosts the European Space Resources Innovation Centre (ESRIC) and has launched initiatives like the “Lunar Space Resources Accelerator” to fund start-ups in this field.

Malta

Associated Space Agency

Malta’s engagement with the space sector is coordinated by the Malta Council for Science and Technology (MCST). The country does not have a dedicated space agency but has been steadily increasing its involvement in European space activities. Malta signed a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in 2012 and is currently a European Cooperating State (ECS), a status that provides a pathway for its industry and research community to participate in ESA programs.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Malta’s space strategy is focused on leveraging the potential of the space economy to contribute to its economic growth and technological development. The vision is to position Malta as an attractive hub for commercial space activities, capitalizing on its strategic location, access to the EU market, and skilled human capital. Key objectives include:

• Creating a Favorable Regulatory Framework: The government is working to develop a regulatory environment that encourages the establishment of space start-ups and satellite communication companies in Malta.
• Attracting Foreign Direct Investment: A primary goal is to attract foreign investment in the space sector, particularly in satellite services and the emerging field of space resource utilization.
• Boosting Research and Innovation: The strategy aims to use space-generated data to improve the quality of public services and to stimulate research and innovation in areas like climate change, agriculture, and maritime surveillance.
• Exploiting ESA Membership: Malta seeks to fully exploit its ECS status to integrate its companies and researchers into the European space ecosystem.

Key Programmes and Contributions

As an ECS, Malta’s participation in ESA programs is focused on building national capacity. The priority areas for research and industry include telecommunications, satellite technology, and high-tech engineering. The University of Malta is active in space-related research, and the country’s participation in the PECS program is enabling Maltese entities to bid for ESA contracts for the first time. The strategy emphasizes downstream applications, using data from Copernicus and Galileo to address national needs in areas like maritime monitoring, which is particularly relevant for an island nation.

Moldova

Associated Space Agency

Moldova does not have a formal national space agency. Its space activities are in a very early stage of development and are primarily led by academic institutions, with the Technical University of Moldova (TUM) at the forefront. Moldova does not have a formal agreement with ESA, but it has engaged with European partners on specific projects.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The country’s current focus is on building foundational capabilities and human capital in the space sector. The primary objective is to gain practical experience in space technology and to use space as a tool to inspire young people to pursue STEM education. The development and operation of its first satellite was a key step in this direction, serving as a technology demonstration and a learning experience. Moldova has also shown an interest in downstream applications, collaborating with international partners like the UNDP and ESA on projects that use satellite data to address local challenges.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Moldova’s most significant space achievement to date is the successful deployment of its first satellite, TUMnanoSAT, from the International Space Station in August 2022. This milestone was made possible through the KiboCUBE program, a joint initiative of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) that provides developing countries with opportunities to deploy CubeSats from the ISS. The mission’s main goal was to test the performance of various sensors and subsystems in orbit. In the downstream sector, Moldova has participated in a data collaborative with UNDP and ESA to use satellite and mobile phone data to analyze urban mobility patterns in its capital, Chișinău.

Monaco

The Principality of Monaco does not have a national space agency or a formal agreement with the European Space Agency. Its engagement with the space sector is limited. Given its economy, any future involvement would likely be concentrated in the high-value downstream services or financial sectors, potentially serving as a base for companies involved in satellite communications or data analytics, or as a source of private investment for the broader space economy.

Montenegro

Montenegro does not have a national space agency or a formal agreement with ESA. The country’s space-related activities are minimal. it has hosted international events related to the space sector. In November 2024, Montenegro hosted the European Forum for Disaster Risk Reduction, an event where ESA participated and highlighted the role of space technology in disaster management. This indicates an awareness of the benefits of downstream space applications. Future engagement with the European space sector would likely begin with a Cooperation Agreement with ESA.

Netherlands

Associated Space Agency

The Netherlands Space Office (NSO) is the national space agency of the Netherlands. It operates on behalf of the Dutch government, coordinating national space activities and representing the country in international organizations like ESA. The NSO works under the authority of and in close cooperation with several ministries, including Economic Affairs, Education, Culture and Science, and Infrastructure and Water Management. The Netherlands is a founding member of ESA and hosts the agency’s largest establishment, ESTEC.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The mission of the NSO is to use space to advance national goals. Its strategy is focused on several key areas:

• Enhancing National Resilience: Using space-based assets for security, communications, and monitoring critical infrastructure.
• Advancing Societal Applications: Promoting the use of satellite data to address challenges in areas like agriculture, water management, mobility, and energy.
• Driving Scientific Progress: Supporting the Dutch scientific community’s participation in international space science and exploration missions.
• Fostering Sustainable Economic Growth: Supporting the Dutch space industry, fostering innovation, and connecting national expertise with global partners.

Key Programmes and Contributions

The Netherlands has a strong and diverse space sector with world-class expertise in both upstream and downstream segments. Dutch industry is a key supplier of high-tech components for satellites and launchers, with particular strengths in solar arrays, sensors, and structures. The country is also a leader in the development of scientific instruments for astronomy and Earth observation missions.

Hosting ESTEC, ESA’s technical heart, provides the Dutch space ecosystem with a unique advantage, placing it at the center of European space technology development. In the downstream sector, the Netherlands is a pioneer in using satellite data for applications in agriculture, water management, and climate monitoring. The country’s expertise in these areas is applied both domestically and in international development projects.

North Macedonia

North Macedonia does not have a national space agency or a formal agreement with the European Space Agency. The country’s involvement in the space sector is currently not formalized at a national level. Like other nations in the region, its path to greater participation in European space activities would involve establishing a national coordinating body and seeking a Cooperation Agreement with ESA to begin building domestic capacity and identifying areas of interest.

Norway

Associated Space Agency

The Norwegian Space Agency (NOSA), formerly the Norwegian Space Centre, is the government body responsible for coordinating Norway’s space activities. It manages the country’s participation in ESA, of which Norway is a full Member State, and promotes the development of the national space industry and research community.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Norway’s space policy, outlined in the white paper “Between heaven and earth,” is driven by the country’s unique geography, economic interests, and strategic position in the High North. The policy is structured around four main goals:

1. Profitable Companies, Growth, and Employment: The government aims to ensure that public investment in space strengthens wealth creation and business development, particularly in the downstream industry.
2. Meeting Societal and User Needs: A key priority is to use space activities to meet the needs of Norwegian society, with a special focus on the Arctic. This includes providing satellite communications, navigation, and Earth observation services for maritime surveillance, resource management, and climate monitoring in the High North.
3. Greater Return on International Collaboration: The strategy emphasizes extending Norway’s participation in ESA and strengthening its collaboration with the EU to promote Norwegian interests in programs like Galileo and Copernicus.
4. High-Quality National Administration: This involves ensuring effective coordination among government ministries and strengthening the role of NOSA as the central body for implementing national space policy.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Norway has leveraged its geographical advantages to become a key player in certain space domains. The country operates major satellite ground stations in Svalbard (SvalSat) and Antarctica (TrollSat), which are ideally located for downloading data from polar-orbiting satellites. These stations are a critical part of the global ground segment for numerous international Earth observation missions.

The Norwegian space industry has developed world-class expertise in niche areas such as maritime surveillance technology, satellite communications for the Arctic, and components for launchers and satellites. The country is also developing its own national small satellite missions to address specific user needs in the High North. Andøya Space, located in Northern Norway, is a historic launch site for sounding rockets and is being developed into the first operational spaceport on the European mainland for launching small satellites into polar orbits.

Poland

Associated Space Agency

The Polish Space Agency (POLSA) was established in 2014 to coordinate the country’s space activities and support the national space industry. It is administered by the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology. Poland became a full Member State of ESA in 2012, a move that has significantly accelerated the growth of its space sector.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Polish Space Strategy sets out an ambitious plan to develop the country’s space capabilities by 2030. The strategy is focused on three main goals:

1. Increase the Competitiveness of the Polish Space Sector: The strategy aims for the Polish space industry to capture at least 3% of the European space market. This is to be achieved by increasing Poland’s financial contribution to ESA’s optional programs and implementing a National Space Program to advance the technological readiness of Polish products.
2. Develop Satellite Applications for the Digital Economy: A key objective is to ensure that the state administration and the broader economy can effectively utilize satellite data for their tasks. This includes establishing a national Copernicus data reception station and developing applications for public services.
3. Enhance National Security and Defence Capabilities: The strategy emphasizes leveraging space and satellite technology to expand the competence of the security and defence sectors. This includes developing a national Space Situational Awareness (SSA) system and launching a national satellite system for optoelectronic Earth observation.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Since joining ESA, the Polish space sector has grown rapidly, with nearly 400 companies now active in the market. The industry has developed expertise in areas such as software, robotics, optics, and precise mechanics. POLSA is actively involved in several international programs, including ESA’s SSA program and projects focused on secure satellite communications.

A major recent development is the IGNIS mission, which will send a Polish astronaut to the International Space Station to conduct a series of scientific experiments. This mission is seen as a major step forward for the Polish space sector. Poland is also developing a national satellite constellation, in partnership with ESA, which will consist of both optoelectronic and radar satellites for monitoring land use, agriculture, and the environment. The country is also a signatory of the Artemis Accords and aims to participate in future lunar missions.

Portugal

Associated Space Agency

The Portuguese Space Agency, known as Portugal Space, was created in 2019 to implement the national space strategy. It acts as a business and development unit, promoting and strengthening the space ecosystem in Portugal for the benefit of society and the economy. Portugal has been a full Member State of ESA since 2000.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The national strategy, “Portugal Space 2030,” sets a vision for Portugal to be recognized as a global authority in the science and economics of Space-Earth-Climate-Oceans interactions, leveraging its Atlantic identity and maritime tradition. The strategy is guided by four main objectives:

1. Promote Economic Growth and Skilled Jobs: The strategy aims to create 1,000 skilled jobs in the space sector by 2030 and attract major international players to operate in Portugal.
2. Foster the Generation of Satellite Data: This involves promoting the development of new space technologies and infrastructure in Portugal, with a focus on small satellites and leveraging international cooperation.
3. Contribute to National Development and International Relations: The strategy seeks to use space as a tool for national development and to strengthen diplomatic and scientific cooperation.
4. Ensure a Supportive Framework: This involves developing the legal, financial, and institutional frameworks needed to boost the growth of the space sector in Portugal.

A key element of the strategy is the development of a spaceport in the Azores.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Portugal is actively developing its space ecosystem with a strong focus on the “New Space” economy and the interactions between space and the Atlantic Ocean. The country is leveraging the unique geographical location of the Azores archipelago to develop the Santa Maria Spaceport, which will offer launch services for small satellites. The implementation of an ESA tracking station on Santa Maria Island has already established the Azores as an important location for space activities.

Portuguese companies and research institutions are increasingly active in ESA programs, with expertise in areas like Earth observation, telecommunications, and software. The Portugal Space 2030 strategy emphasizes the development of downstream applications that can benefit sectors like agriculture, fisheries, and maritime monitoring, which are vital to the Portuguese economy.

Romania

Associated Space Agency

The Romanian Space Agency (ROSA), established in 1991, is a public institution that coordinates the country’s national and international space activities. It operates under the authority of the Ministry of Education and Research and is responsible for designing and implementing the National Space Programme. Romania became a full Member State of ESA in 2011.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The mission of ROSA is built on four major components:

1. Coordinate National Space Programs: ROSA designs and manages national space research and application programs.
2. Promote Space Development in Romania: The agency works to foster the growth of the Romanian space industry and research community.
3. Represent Romania in International Cooperation: ROSA acts as the government’s representative in international space cooperation, including its participation in ESA.
4. Conduct Research: The agency also carries out its own research and development projects at the ROSA Research Center.

The national strategy emphasizes smart specialization, with “ITC, Space and Security” being identified as a key priority for the country. ROSA is focused on developing niche competence centers in areas like nanosatellites, remote sensing, and radiation hardness testing.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Romania has a history of experience in space applications, particularly in satellite communications, having operated an Intelsat ground station since 1977. Since joining ESA, the country has participated in over 100 projects. Romanian industry is developing capabilities in areas like micro-nano-satellites, with a focus on participating in future mega-constellations. ROSA has also proposed the development of a micro-launcher for small satellites and a potential launch site on the Black Sea coast.

Romanian scientists have contributed experiments to the International Space Station and are involved in major international missions like the HERA planetary defense mission. The country is also participating in the EU’s GOVSATCOM program to develop secure satellite communications capabilities.

San Marino

The Republic of San Marino does not have a national space agency or a formal agreement with the European Space Agency. Its small size and specialized economy mean that it does not have a national space program. Any engagement with the space sector would likely be indirect, potentially through financial services or specialized manufacturing companies that could contribute to the broader European supply chain.

Serbia

Associated Space Agency

Serbia does not have an official government space agency. The Serbian Office for Space Sciences, Research and Development (SERBSPACE) is a non-governmental organization established in 2016 that works to develop the space sector in Serbia. It aims to foster cooperation between academia, industry, and government and to represent Serbian interests in international space forums. Serbia does not currently have a formal agreement with ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The general aim of SERBSPACE is to develop a space ecosystem in Serbia. Its scope of work includes:

• Organizing scientific and professional events related to space.
• Developing projects and contributing to national space strategies and roadmaps.
• Participating in national and international space-related projects and conferences.
• Fostering cooperation with international universities, space agencies, and companies.
• Informing and cooperating with competent national authorities on initiatives of national interest, such as the potential creation of a Serbian space agency and seeking membership in international organizations like the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).

Key Programmes and Contributions

Serbia’s space activities are currently in a nascent stage. The efforts of SERBSPACE are focused on building a foundation for a future national space program. This involves creating a network of stakeholders within Serbia, raising awareness of the benefits of space technology, and establishing connections with the international space community. The organization’s activities are geared towards preparing the ground for formal government engagement with international bodies like ESA.

Slovakia

Associated Space Agency

The Slovak Space Office, which is part of the Slovak Investment and Trade Development Agency (SARIO), is responsible for the implementation of Slovakia’s space agenda. It works in a joint project with the Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sport, which handles the political coordination and multilateral cooperation with organizations like ESA. This structure separates the policy-making function from the implementation and ecosystem development function. Slovakia became an Associate Member of ESA in 2022.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

As an Associate Member of ESA, Slovakia’s primary strategic objective is to develop its national space ecosystem and integrate its industry and research community into European structures. The key priorities of the Slovak Space Office are:

• Developing International Cooperation: Fostering partnerships for Slovak entities in the space industry.
• Supporting Slovak Entrepreneurs and Researchers: Assisting Slovak organizations in participating in EU and ESA space projects.
• Encouraging New Entrants: Supporting the entry of new companies into the space sector.
• Promoting Academia-Business Cooperation: Fostering collaboration between universities and industry.
• Information and Popularization: Organizing events and providing information to both professional and public audiences.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Slovakia has a growing space sector with a history of non-governmental activity led by organizations like the Slovak Organisation for Space Activities (SOSA). SOSA was responsible for developing skCUBE, the first Slovak satellite, which was launched in 2017. This project provided valuable experience and inspiration for the country’s space community.

Since becoming an ESA Associate Member, Slovak companies and research institutions have been able to participate in ESA programs, developing capabilities in areas like software, electronics, and mechanical engineering. The Slovak Space Office actively promotes these opportunities and works to build a competitive national space industry.

Slovenia

Associated Space Agency

The Slovenian Space Office is located within the Ministry of the Economy, Tourism and Sport. It is responsible for coordinating space technology issues related to Slovenia’s membership in the EU and ESA, and for liaising with other stakeholders in the country. Slovenia became an Associate Member of ESA in 2016 and transitioned to full Member State status on January 1, 2025.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Slovenia’s space strategy is focused on leveraging its ESA membership to foster a competitive, high-tech space sector. The key objectives are:

• Promoting Industrial and R&D Participation in ESA: The Slovenian Space Office provides information and support to help Slovenian businesses and research institutions participate in ESA projects.
• Developing National Space Legislation and Policy: The office is responsible for drafting the legal and policy frameworks that promote the development of space technologies in Slovenia.
• Coordinating National Space Activities: It leads an inter-ministerial working group on space to ensure a coherent national approach.
• Supporting the Herman Potočnik Noordung Center of Space Technologies: The office supports this public institute, which serves as a key national center for space-related research and outreach.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Slovenia has a growing number of companies and research institutions active in the space sector. They have developed expertise in niche areas such as advanced materials, electronics, software, and Earth observation data applications. Through their participation in ESA programs, Slovenian entities have successfully secured contracts and integrated into European supply chains. The country has also launched its first satellites, including NEMO HD and TRISAT, which have provided valuable experience in satellite development and operations. Full membership in ESA is expected to further accelerate the growth and sophistication of the Slovenian space sector.

Spain

Associated Space Agency

The Spanish Space Agency (Agencia Espacial Española, or AEE) became operational in April 2023. Its creation fulfilled a long-standing demand from the Spanish space industry to have a single, dedicated public body to coordinate the country’s space activities, which were previously dispersed among various ministries and institutions. The AEE, headquartered in Seville, is now responsible for developing and implementing Spain’s national space strategy. Spain is a founding member of ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The creation of the AEE was driven by the 2021 National Security Strategy, which identified the need for a unified body to promote the national space industry and international cooperation. The agency’s primary challenge and objective is to meet the high expectations of the Spanish space sector. The strategy focuses on:

• Optimizing Resources: The AEE will play a key role in optimizing public investment in space and ensuring that decisions are made in collaboration with all actors along the value chain.
• Aligning with European Policy: A key task is to define a clear Spanish space strategy that is aligned with broader European regulations and goals while also serving national interests.
• Fostering Public-Private Collaboration: The strategy emphasizes the need to foster strong collaboration between the public and private sectors to adapt to market needs and drive innovation.
• Ensuring Independent Capabilities: The strategy recognizes the strategic importance of space for security and defence and the need for Europe to be independent from other space powers.
• Promoting a “Next Space” Approach: Spanish industry leaders are advocating for a move beyond the “New Space” concept to a “Next Space” paradigm, which is more focused on market needs, sustainability, and accessibility.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Spain has a mature and highly capable space industry with a turnover of almost €1 billion per year. Spanish companies are among the few in Europe with the capacity to lead complete space systems. They have developed leading technologies in areas such as satellite navigation, ground segments, and satellite manufacturing. The Spanish technology company GMV, for example, is a key player in the development of the ground control segment for the Galileo program.

Spain is an active contributor to all major European space programs, including Copernicus, Galileo, and the Ariane and Vega launchers. The country also has a long history of bilateral cooperation with the United States, hosting part of NASA’s Deep Space Network near Madrid. With the establishment of the AEE, Spain is poised to take a more coordinated and strategic approach to its space activities, further strengthening its position as a major European space power.

Sweden

Associated Space Agency

The Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA) is a central government agency under the Ministry of Education and Research. It is responsible for distributing government grants for space research and technology development, initiating R&D activities, and acting as Sweden’s point of contact for international cooperation, including its membership in ESA. Sweden is a founding member of ESA.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

Sweden’s space activities are guided by the national space strategy “A strategy for Swedish space activities” (2018) and, more recently, by the country’s first “Defence and Security Space Strategy” (2024). This dual focus reflects the growing recognition of space as a critical domain for both civil and security interests. The key pillars of the strategy are:

1. Ensure Freedom of Action in Space: This involves having the ability to anticipate and address challenges to Sweden’s interests in space.
2. Create a Portfolio of Space Capabilities: The strategy calls for developing a range of space capabilities and services to support Sweden’s total defence and crisis preparedness.
3. Be an Active and Responsible International Partner: Sweden aims to be a significant actor in the international space arena, contributing to common security through its partnerships in the EU and NATO.
4. Conduct a Coherent and Knowledge-Based Space Policy: This involves a coordinated approach to space policy that contributes to the development of national crisis preparedness and total defence.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Sweden has a long history of space activities, benefiting from its northern geography which is ideal for certain types of space research and operations. The country’s space program is carried out largely through international cooperation, with about 70% of its annual budget of approximately SEK 1.3 billion going to support ESA programs.

A key national asset is the Esrange Space Center near Kiruna in the Arctic. Operated by the state-owned Swedish Space Corporation, Esrange has been a launch site for sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons for decades. It is now being developed into a premier launch site for small satellites into polar orbit, which will provide continental Europe with a much-needed orbital launch capability. This development is a central part of Sweden’s strategy to enhance its influence within both the EU and NATO.

Swedish industry has developed expertise in several niche areas, including satellite subsystems, microwave electronics, and small satellite platforms. Sweden launched its first satellite, Viking, in 1986 and continues to develop national missions.

Switzerland

Associated Space Agency

Switzerland does not have a national space agency in the traditional sense. The Swiss Space Office (SSO), which is a division of the State Secretariat for Education, Research, and Innovation (SERI), serves as the federal government’s competence center for all national and international space matters. The SSO is responsible for preparing and implementing Swiss space policy and representing the country’s interests at ESA, of which Switzerland is a founding member.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The Swiss Space Policy 2023 defines the country’s strategic priorities in a rapidly evolving space environment. The policy focuses on excellence, innovation, and international cooperation, with an emphasis on quality and reliability. The ambitious goals of the policy are to:

• Contribute to the Quality of Life and Security: The strategy aims to make full use of the potential of space activities to benefit Swiss citizens.
• Push the Frontiers of Science and Technology: A key objective is to promote excellence and innovation to give Swiss players a competitive edge in the global market.
• Enable Future Generations: The policy seeks to ensure that future generations can fully benefit from the opportunities provided by space.
• Shape European and International Space Activities: Switzerland aims to be an active partner in shaping global space governance and pursuing its policy objectives with openness and reliability.

The policy also recognizes the growing importance of security and defence in the space domain and the need to address geopolitical challenges.

Key Programmes and Contributions

Switzerland has a long and proud tradition in the space sector, known for its high-precision technology and scientific excellence. The Swiss space industry is a world leader in several niche areas, including atomic clocks for navigation satellites, high-precision mechanisms and structures, and miniaturized optical equipment for scientific instruments. Swiss technology has been an integral part of countless international space missions, starting with the Solar Wind Composition Experiment, which was deployed on the Moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts.

As a founding member of ESA, Switzerland participates in almost all of its programs. This participation enables Swiss universities and industrial companies to play leading roles in major European space missions. The country’s focus on quality and precision has made it a highly reliable and sought-after partner in the international space community.

United Kingdom

Associated Space Agency

The UK Space Agency (UKSA) is an executive agency of the UK government responsible for the country’s civil space program. Established in 2010, it brought together all UK civil space activities under a single management structure. The agency is responsible for government policy, key budgets for space, and represents the UK in international negotiations, including at ESA, of which the UK is a founding member.

Strategic Objectives and Priorities

The UK’s ambitions are set out in the National Space Strategy, first published in 2021, which brings together civil and defence space policy for the first time. The strategy’s vision is to build one of the most innovative and attractive space economies in the world and to grow the UK as a space nation. The UKSA’s Corporate Plan for 2022-2025 details how the agency will deliver on this vision through eight key priorities:

1. Launch: A major goal is to capture a significant share of the European market in commercial small satellite launch, with the aim of establishing a sustainable commercial launch market from UK spaceports by 2030.
2. Earth Observation: To deliver a portfolio of activities, including missions like Microcarb with France, to ensure access to the data needed to fight climate change and improve public services.
3. LEO Capabilities: To use the UK’s assets in low Earth orbit, such as its share in the OneWeb constellation, to deliver new capabilities in broadband, navigation, and Earth observation.
4. Sustainability: To lead the global effort to make space more sustainable by developing capabilities to track and remove space debris and by promoting international regulation and standards.
5. Innovation: To deliver a step-change in the UK’s share of high-growth commercial space markets by investing in high-risk, high-reward technologies.
6. Discovery: To manage a program of national and international space science missions that strengthen UK capability and offer opportunities for global leadership in scientific discovery.
7. Levelling-up: To increase and spread space investment and jobs across the UK by accelerating the growth of a network of local space clusters.
8. Inspiration: To deliver a program that inspires young people to pursue STEM education and attracts talent to the UK space sector.

Key Programmes and Contributions

The UK has a large and dynamic space sector, worth over £16.4 billion per year and employing over 45,000 people. The country has a world-leading industry in the manufacturing of small satellites, satellite communications, and downstream data services. The UK is a major contributor to ESA and plays a leading role in many of its programs, particularly in telecommunications, Earth observation, and space science.

A key focus of the national strategy has been the development of a sovereign launch capability. The UK has licensed several spaceports, including in Cornwall and Scotland, with the goal of becoming the leading provider of commercial small satellite launch services in Europe. While the first launch attempt from UK soil in January 2023 was not successful, the program has stimulated significant investment and innovation. The UK is also a major partner in international science missions, such as the James Webb Space Telescope, and is leading the development of the ARIEL exoplanet mission.

Summary

The European space economy is a complex and multifaceted ecosystem defined by a powerful duality: a deep-seated tradition of pan-European collaboration coexisting with a vibrant and diverse array of national ambitions. This dual structure is both its greatest strength and its most significant challenge. On one hand, the collective power of institutions like the European Space Agency and the European Union enables the continent to undertake world-class programs in launch, navigation, and Earth observation that guarantee strategic autonomy and are far beyond the means of any single member state. This collaborative framework has fostered a rich and highly skilled industrial and scientific base that is distributed across the continent, creating a resilient and deeply integrated ecosystem.

On the other hand, Europe faces a formidable challenge in adapting to a new global space age dominated by agile, commercially driven, and vertically integrated players. The continent’s commercial market share has stagnated, leading to an increasing dependency on its own institutional customers. This inward focus, while important for sovereignty, risks hindering the industry’s competitiveness on a global stage where cost and speed are paramount. The structural constraints of geographically distributed industrial policy, a cornerstone of pan-European political support, can create inefficiencies that make it difficult to compete with more streamlined commercial models. Furthermore, while a dynamic “NewSpace” start-up scene is emerging across Europe, it is hampered by a critical lack of scale-up funding, which threatens to drain talent and innovation toward more mature investment markets.

The path forward for Europe involves navigating this inherent tension. It requires leveraging the undeniable strength of its collaborative institutions to continue pushing the frontiers of science and technology while simultaneously fostering a more competitive and commercially-minded industrial base. The diverse strategies of its individual nations—from France and Germany’s industrial leadership to Luxembourg’s commercial focus and the growing ambitions of Central and Eastern European states—are a key part of this equation. By harnessing these varied strengths and addressing its structural weaknesses, Europe is positioned to continue playing a leading role, shaping the future of the global space economy not just as a technological power, but as a model of international cooperation in a domain of ever-increasing importance.