India’s Human Spaceflight Program

Sovereign Capability

The Republic of India stands on the threshold of a defining moment in its history. The Gaganyaan programme, the formal name for India’s human spaceflight initiative, is a national endeavor of immense scale and complexity. Spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the program’s primary objective is to develop the indigenous capability to send an Indian crew of two or three astronauts to Low Earth Orbit(LEO) and return them safely to Earth.

This initiative is not merely about placing humans in orbit; it represents a powerful convergence of technology, science, national prestige, and future aspiration. By successfully conducting a crewed mission, India will join the very small group of nations – currently comprising the United States, Russia, and China – that have independently developed and executed human spaceflight.

The Gaganyaan programme was formally announced in 2018, though its roots extend back over a decade through various technology development projects. The mission’s scope is specific: to launch a crew into an orbit approximately 400 kilometers above the Earth, where they will remain for several days before re-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Indian Ocean.

This article explores the deep history that led to this moment, the intricate technological components being built, the rigorous process of selecting and training the astronauts, and the meticulous, step-by-step path of test flights leading to India’s first human launch. It also examines the program’s wider implications for the nation’s scientific, economic, and geopolitical stature, as well as its role as the foundation for far more ambitious plans, including a future Indian space station.

A Legacy of Ambition

India’s dream of sending its own citizens to space is not a new one. It’s a vision that has been nurtured for decades, tracing its origins back to the very founder of the Indian space program, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. He envisioned that space technology must be applied for the direct benefit of society, but he also understood its power to inspire a nation and drive it toward technological self-reliance.

The first and, to date, only Indian citizen to travel to space was Rakesh Sharma, a pilot in the Indian Air Force. In 1984, he flew aboard the Soviet Soyuz T-11 spacecraft as part of the Interkosmos program. His eight-day mission to the Salyut 7 space station was a landmark event, capturing the imagination of the entire country. His famous reply from orbit, when asked how India looked from above, was “Sare Jahan se Achha” (Better than the whole world).

While Rakesh Sharma’s flight was a moment of immense national pride, it was a mission facilitated by another nation. The desire to develop an indigenous capability remained. In the following decades, several Indian-American astronauts, notably Kalpana Chawla and Sunita Williams, flew on numerous NASA missions, serving as powerful role models and keeping the public’s connection to space exploration alive.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) methodically built its capabilities, focusing first on satellites and launch vehicles. It mastered the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and developed the more powerful Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). These rockets were the necessary precursors to any human-rated system.

A significant, direct step toward a human spaceflight capability was taken in 2007 with the Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1). ISRO launched a 550-kilogram capsule, orbited it for 12 days to conduct microgravity experiments, and then successfully guided its re-entry into the Bay of Bengal. SRE-1 was a important test, proving ISRO’s mastery of the complex physics of atmospheric re-entry, including the development of ablative heat shields that could withstand the intense temperatures, and the procedures for locating and recovering a capsule from the sea.

Another major milestone occurred in 2014. ISRO conducted the first experimental flight of its new heavy-lift rocket, the LVM3 (then called the GSLV Mk III). Atop this powerful rocket was a test article called the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE). This was a sub-orbital flight; the module separated from the rocket, soared to an altitude of 126 kilometers, and then performed a successful, high-speed re-entry and splashdown. The CARE test validated the module’s aerodynamic shape, its heat shield, and its parachute systems at velocities approaching those of an orbital re-entry.

These missions were not isolated experiments. They were the deliberate, patient, and essential technological building blocks that, piece by piece, constructed the foundation upon which the Gaganyaan programme is now being built.

The Architecture of Gaganyaan

At the heart of the Gaganyaan mission is a complex architecture of hardware and systems, all designed with one overriding principle: crew safety. The program relies on two primary components: the launch vehicle to get to orbit and the spacecraft to house the crew.

The Launch Vehicle: LVM3

The rocket selected for this task is the LVM3, which stands for Launch Vehicle Mark 3. Colloquially known as ISRO’s “Bahubali” for its sheer power and size, the LVM3 is India’s most powerful and reliable launch vehicle. It has already proven its capability by successfully launching the Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3 lunar missions, as well as multiple commercial satellites.

The LVM3 is a three-stage rocket. It consists of:

Two S200 Solid Boosters: Strapped to the side of the main rocket, these two massive boosters are filled with solid propellant. They provide the enormous initial thrust needed to lift the 640-tonne rocket off the launch pad.
The L110 Liquid Core Stage: This is the large liquid-fueled stage at the rocket’s center. It ignites a few seconds after the solid boosters, providing sustained power during the first phase of the ascent through the atmosphere.
The C25 Cryogenic Upper Stage: This is the high-tech, high-performance upper stage. It uses cryogenic propellants – super-cooled liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. This engine is highly efficient and is responsible for the final “push” that accelerates the spacecraft to orbital velocity after it has left the dense lower atmosphere.

Before the LVM3 can carry astronauts, it must be “human-rated.” This is a meticulous and demanding process. It doesn’t just mean the rocket is reliable; it means the rocket is designed to be safe even when things go wrong. Human-rating involves adding redundant systems – backup computers, duplicate sensors, and extra safety checks – to ensure that a single component failure does not lead to a catastrophic event. Most importantly, it involves integrating the rocket with a Crew Escape System, a technology designed to save the astronauts’ lives in an emergency.

The Orbital Module

The spacecraft that will carry the astronauts is called the Orbital Module. It’s not a single piece but is composed of two distinct parts that are joined together for the journey.

The Crew Module (CM)

The Crew Module is the “home” for the astronauts. It is the only part of the entire spacecraft that will return to Earth. Shaped like a blunt cone, a design proven to be aerodynamically stable during re-entry, the CM is a double-walled, pressurized capsule. Inside, it’s a tight but functional space, equipped with:

Life Support: Systems that provide breathable air (oxygen and nitrogen), remove carbon dioxide, control temperature and humidity, and manage water and waste.
Avionics: A sophisticated “glass cockpit” with digital displays that show the crew the spacecraft’s status, mission data, and allow them to control the vehicle.
Seating: Custom-fitted seats for the crew, designed to cushion them against the intense g-forces of launch and re-entry.
Parachutes: A complex set of parachutes, including smaller drogue chutes to stabilize the capsule at high speed and three large main parachutes to slow it down for a gentle splashdown.

The exterior of the Crew Module is covered by a Thermal Protection System, or heat shield. This is made of special ablative materials that are designed to burn away and char during re-entry, carrying the intense heat of atmospheric friction (which can reach over 1,600 degrees Celsius) away from the capsule and its occupants.

The Service Module (SM)

The Service Module is the “backpack” of the Crew Module. This cylindrical section is not pressurized and will not return to Earth. Its job is to support the Crew Module while it’s in orbit. The Service Module contains:

Propulsion: A main engine and a set of smaller thrusters for maneuvering in space – changing orbit, pointing the spacecraft, and performing the all-important “de-boost” burn to initiate the return to Earth.
Power: Large, deployable solar panels that generate electricity from sunlight to power all the spacecraft’s systems.
Thermal Control: Radiators that shed excess heat from the spacecraft’s electronics and crew into the vacuum of space.

For the duration of the mission, the Crew Module and Service Module fly together as the single Orbital Module. Just before re-entry, the Service Module is jettisoned and burns up in the atmosphere, leaving only the protected Crew Module to complete the journey home.

The Crew Escape System

The most vital safety feature of the entire mission is the Crew Escape System (CES). This is a separate, rocket-powered tower mounted on top of the Crew Module. Its sole purpose is to save the astronauts in the event of a dangerous failure of the LVM3 rocket, either on the launch pad or during its ascent.

If the onboard computers detect a major problem, such as a fire, loss of thrust, or the rocket veering off course, the CES would ignite its powerful solid-fuel motors in an instant. These motors would fire with immense force, pulling the Crew Module (with the astronauts inside) away from the failing rocket at high speed. The CES would carry the capsule to a safe altitude and distance, where it would then deploy its own parachutes for a safe landing.

ISRO has conducted multiple tests of this system. The Pad Abort Test in 2018 demonstrated the CES’s ability to pull the capsule away from the launch pad in a ground-level emergency. More recently, the Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1 (TV-D1) in October 2023 successfully tested the system’s performance during flight, simulating an emergency at a high altitude and supersonic speed. These tests are essential for proving that the astronauts can be saved at any point during the launch.

Building a Program from the Ground Up

A human spaceflight program is far more than just a rocket and a capsule. It requires the creation of a vast, interlocking network of ground infrastructure, training facilities, and operational teams, all working in perfect synchronization.

Selecting and Training the ‘Vyomanauts’

The Indian astronauts selected for the Gaganyaan mission are known as ‘Vyomanauts’, a name derived from the Sanskrit word “Vyoma” meaning ‘sky’ or ‘space’.

The selection process was exceptionally rigorous. ISRO turned to the Indian Air Force (IAF), seeking its most experienced test pilots. Test pilots are considered ideal candidates because they are already trained engineers and pilots who are accustomed to operating high-performance machines in high-stress, dynamic environments.

From a large pool of applicants, four IAF Group Captains were chosen as the astronaut-designates for the program. Their names were announced in February 2024:

Group Captain Prashanth Balakrishnan Nair
Group Captain Ajit Krishnan
Group Captain Angad Prathap
Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla

This “Gaganyaan Four” immediately began an intense and multi-faceted training regimen. Their initial phase of training was conducted in Russia, at the renowned Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center outside Moscow. Here, they underwent generic spaceflight training, which included survival skills, biomedical preparations, centrifuge training (to simulate high G-forces), and familiarization with zero-gravity environments through parabolic flights.

Upon returning to India, the astronauts’ training shifted to the newly established Human Space Flight Centre(HSFC) in Bengaluru. This is the hub of the Gaganyaan program, and it’s where the astronauts are receiving mission-specific training. This includes:

Simulators: Working in high-fidelity mockups of the Gaganyaan capsule, learning every switch, display, and emergency procedure.
Mission Briefings: In-depth academic instruction on the LVM3 rocket, the Orbital Module, orbital mechanics, and the mission’s scientific objectives.
Physical Conditioning: A tailored fitness program to prepare their bodies for the rigors of spaceflight and re-entry.
Recovery Training: Working closely with the Indian Navy to practice the procedures for exiting the capsule after splashdown in the ocean.

One of the astronaut-designates, Shubhanshu Shukla, also participated in the Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) as a backup crew member, and there are plans for another Indian astronaut to fly to the International Space Station on a NASA -crewed mission. These collaborations provide valuable, real-world spaceflight experience in preparation for India’s own mission.

The Ground Infrastructure

To support a human mission, ISRO has had to build or significantly upgrade a massive amount of ground infrastructure.

The Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota, India’s primary spaceport, has undergone major modifications. The Second Launch Pad, from which the LVM3 launches, has been adapted to include a new Crew Access Arm and safety systems required for human launch. Nearby, new facilities for assembling and checking out the Crew Module and Service Module have been constructed.

The Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) in Bengaluru serves as the program’s nerve center. It’s not just a training facility; it’s responsible for the overall program management, from design and engineering to mission planning and execution. A new, state-of-the-art mission control center has been established here, which will be the primary command center for the crewed flight.

A global tracking network is also essential. To communicate with the Gaganyaan capsule as it orbits the Earth (when it’s not visible from Indian ground stations), ISRO is leveraging its existing ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC). It is also establishing new ground stations in other countries and is developing the Indian Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS). Once operational, this system of satellites in geostationary orbit provides continuous, high-bandwidth communication with the crew, eliminating the “dead zones” when the capsule is on the opposite side of the world.

Recovery Operations

A mission is only successful if the crew returns safely. The final phase of the Gaganyaan mission is recovery. After re-entry, the Crew Module will splash down in the Indian Ocean, likely in the Bay of Bengal off the eastern coast of India.

This phase is a complex military and logistical operation involving the Indian Navy and the Indian Coast Guard. Naval ships, equipped with specialized cranes and medical facilities, will be pre-positioned in the recovery zone. Helicopters and maritime patrol aircraft will assist in locating the capsule.

ISRO and the Navy have conducted numerous recovery trials, using mockups of the capsule to test the ships, equipment, and procedures. Divers and recovery teams practice how to approach the floating capsule, secure it, and safely extract the astronauts. The crew, weakened from their time in microgravity, will be given immediate medical attention onboard the recovery vessel before being flown back to the mainland.

The Robotic Precursor: Vyommitra

Before India sends its astronauts into space, it will first send a robot. Named Vyommitra, a combination of two Sanskrit words meaning “space” and “friend,” this humanoid robot is a key part of the program’s uncrewed test flights.

Vyommitra is a “half-humanoid,” meaning she has a torso, head, and two arms, but no legs. She is designed to fit inside the capsule and occupy one of the astronaut’s seats. Her role is to serve as a high-fidelity test dummy, simulating the human presence on the first uncrewed orbital flights.

Her purpose is twofold. First, she will test the performance of the capsule’s life support systems. Vyommitra is equipped with sensors to monitor the cabin environment, including air pressure, oxygen levels, and temperature, exactly as a human crew would experience them. She can “breathe” by simulating the human consumption of oxygen and a corresponding output of carbon dioxide, allowing ISRO to validate that the life support system can handle the load.

Second, Vyommitra can interact with the spacecraft’s systems. Her arms and hands are capable of operating switches and interacting with the control panels. She has a complete “brain” and sensory system, including visual recognition, allowing her to read the displays and report back on the vehicle’s performance. She can also mimic human functions and communicate with the mission control center on the ground, providing a full test of the communication link from “astronaut” to ground.

By sending Vyommitra on the uncrewed G1 mission, ISRO can gather an enormous amount of data on how the capsule performs and what the environment will be like for a human crew, all without putting any human life at risk.

The Path to the First Crewed Flight

ISRO’s approach to human spaceflight is defined by a methodical, step-by-step testing process. Every system must be proven safe and reliable through a series of escalating test flights before a crew is permitted to board the rocket. This test campaign is divided into two main parts: Test Vehicle (TV) missions and uncrewed orbital (G) missions.

Test Vehicle Missions (TV)

The TV missions use a specially designed, single-stage liquid-fueled rocket called the Test Vehicle. This smaller, simpler rocket is used specifically to test the Crew Escape System (CES) in various challenging scenarios.

TV-D1 (Test Vehicle Demonstration 1): This mission was successfully conducted on October 21, 2023. The rocket launched from Sriharikota with an unpressurized version of the Crew Module. At an altitude of about 12 kilometers and at supersonic speed (Mach 1.2), an abort was deliberately triggered. The CES fired perfectly, pulling the capsule away from the rocket. The capsule then coasted to a higher altitude before deploying its parachutes and splashing down safely in the sea, where it was recovered. TV-D1 was a complete success, validating the entire abort sequence, parachute system, and recovery procedures.

Future TV Missions: ISRO has at least three more TV missions planned. These will test the CES at different, and even more challenging, points in the launch:

TV-D2: This test, planned for 2025, will simulate an abort at a higher altitude, further testing the system’s performance.
TV-D3 and TV-D4: These subsequent flights will continue to test the abort scenarios under different conditions, including maximum aerodynamic pressure (Max Q), to ensure the escape system works reliably across the entire ascent.

Uncrewed Orbital Flights (G1, G2)

Once the escape system is fully qualified, the program moves to the full LVM3 rocket for orbital test flights. These are designated “G” for Gaganyaan.

G1 Mission: This will be the first-ever orbital flight of the full Gaganyaan system. The LVM3 will launch the complete Orbital Module (Crew Module and Service Module) into its 400-kilometer orbit. This mission will be uncrewed, but it will not be empty. The humanoid robot Vyommitra will be onboard.

The G1 mission is a complete dress rehearsal of the crewed flight. ISRO will test every single system: the launch, the orbital insertion, the performance of the life support systems (as monitored by Vyommitra), the orbital maneuvers, the thermal control, the communications network, and – most importantly – the high-speed re-entry, heat shield performance, parachute deployment, and ocean splashdown. According to ISRO’s current (November 2025) schedule, the G1 mission is expected to launch in early 2026.

G2 Mission (and beyond): Following a successful G1 mission, ISRO plans to conduct at least one more uncrewed orbital flight, G2. This flight will serve to confirm the reliability and redundancy of all systems. ISRO has indicated that it conducts as many uncrewed flights as needed to gain complete confidence in the system’s safety. The schedule for G2 is tentatively set for later in 2026.

The First Crewed Mission (H1)

The culmination of this entire, multi-decade effort will be the H1 mission – the first crewed flight of Gaganyaan.

Only after every test flight has been successfully completed and every system has been certified as safe for humans will ISRO proceed with the H1 launch. The mission will carry a crew of two or three of the selected Vyomanauts, launching from Satish Dhawan Space Centre atop the human-rated LVM3 rocket.

They will ascend to a 400-kilometer orbit and spend approximately three days in space, becoming the first Indian citizens to orbit the Earth in an Indian spacecraft. During their time in orbit, they conducts a series of pre-planned scientific experiments, primarily focused on microgravity research, and monitor the performance of their spacecraft.

At the end of the mission, they will fire the Service Module’s engine to begin their descent. They will re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere, endure the fiery-hot deceleration, and splash down in the Indian Ocean, where the Indian Navy recovery fleet will be waiting to bring them home.

Based on the current test flight schedules and the necessary time for data analysis between missions, the first crewed H1 mission is currently anticipated to take place in 2027.

International Collaboration

While Gaganyaan is a flagship program for India’s self-reliance (“Atmanirbhar Bharat”), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has strategically engaged in international collaboration to accelerate progress and share expertise.

Russia: The Russian space agency, Roscosmos, played a key role in the early phase of the program by providing the generic spaceflight training for the four Indian astronaut-designates at its Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. There has also been collaboration on aspects of life support systems.
France: The French space agency, CNES, has a long-standing partnership with ISRO. For Gaganyaan, CNES is contributing expertise in space medicine, astronaut health monitoring, and life support. French-supplied equipment will be used in the astronauts’ training.
United States: Collaboration with NASA has deepened significantly. India was a signatory to the Artemis Accords in 2023, setting a framework for cooperation in lunar and space exploration. A joint NASA -ISRO mission to the International Space Station (ISS) is planned, which will fly an Indian astronaut to the station on a commercial crew vehicle well before the Gaganyaan H1 mission, providing invaluable experience. The Gaganyaan crew has also undergone some familiarization at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.
Australia: The Australian space agency is supporting the mission by providing ground station tracking support from its facility in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.

These partnerships allow India to tap into decades of human spaceflight experience while still developing and owning the core technologies itself.

The Broader Implications

The Gaganyaan programme’s significance extends far beyond the technical achievement of putting people in orbit. It’s a catalyst for development across Indian society.

Technological and Scientific Advancements

Developing a human-rated system is one of the most difficult engineering challenges possible. It requires mastery of new technologies that have applications far beyond the space industry. These include advanced life support systems (which have parallels in medical technology), reliable robotics, fire-proof materials, advanced avionics, and high-performance computing.

Once operational, the Gaganyaan capsule will also serve as a platform for scientific research. The microgravityenvironment of Low Earth Orbit is a unique laboratory. It allows for experiments in materials science (growing purer crystals for electronics), fluid physics, and biotechnology (such as protein crystallization for drug development) that are impossible to conduct on Earth.

Economic and Industrial Impact

Gaganyaan is not just an ISRO project; it’s a national project. A vast consortium of Indian private industries, academic institutions, and public-sector enterprises is involved. Companies like Larsen & Toubro are building critical hardware like the ground and flight components of the rocket boosters. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is contributing to the structure of the Crew Module, and Tata Elxsi has been involved in software and systems development.

This program is nurturing an entire domestic ecosystem for advanced aerospace manufacturing. It creates high-tech jobs, builds a skilled workforce, and sets new standards for quality and reliability that will cascade down to other industries. Perhaps most importantly, it inspires a new generation of students to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), ensuring a pipeline of talent for decades to come.

Geopolitical Significance

On the world stage, a successful Gaganyaan mission is a powerful statement. It demonstrates a level of technological capability that is possessed by only a few nations. It solidifies India’s position as a major space power, a nation that can not only launch satellites and send probes to the Moon and Mars but can also be trusted with the complex and high-stakes endeavor of human spaceflight.

This capability enhances India’s strategic autonomy. It provides the nation with independent access to space, a domain of increasing economic and military importance. It also strengthens its hand in “space diplomacy,” making India a more attractive and capable partner for international collaborations on future projects, such as lunar exploration and beyond.

The Future: Beyond Gaganyaan

Gaganyaan is not an end goal. It is the beginning. ISRO and the Indian government have already laid out a bold and ambitious roadmap for what comes next. This program is seen as the foundational “stepping stone,” developing the essential technologies and operational experience needed for a long-term human presence in space.

The immediate next step after the first few Gaganyaan missions will be to develop sustained flight capability. This will involve upgrading the Gaganyaan capsule to support longer-duration missions and to perform rendezvous and docking with another object in orbit.

This docking capability is the key to India’s next great ambition: the Bharatiya Antariksha Station, or Indian Space Station. The government has set a target of 2035 for establishing this modular space station in Low Earth Orbit. The first module for this station is planned for launch by 2028. The Gaganyaan spacecraft, or its successor, will serve as the “ferry” to transport crews and supplies to and from this station.

And the vision extends even further. The long-term roadmap includes a stated goal of landing an Indian astronaut on the Moon by the year 2040.

Summary

India’s human spaceflight program, Gaganyaan, is a complex and deeply ambitious undertaking. It is the culmination of decades of steady, methodical progress by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), from its first recovery-capsule experiments to the development of its powerful LVM3 rocket.

The program involves a new, human-rated launch vehicle; a sophisticated Orbital Module with a Crew Module for the astronauts and a Service Module for power and propulsion; and a vital Crew Escape System to ensure safety. An extensive ground infrastructure for training, launch, and mission control has been established, and a dedicated cadre of four Indian Air Force pilots has been training for years to become the nation’s first Vyomanauts.

Following a rigorous, safety-first test campaign – including the successful TV-D1 abort test in 2023 and upcoming uncrewed orbital flights with the Vyommitra robot – India is on track for its first crewed mission, currently slated for 2027.

The Gaganyaan program is more than a single mission. It is a national catalyst, driving technological innovation, fostering a new private aerospace industry, and inspiring millions. It represents India’s definitive entry into the arena of human space exploration and serves as the essential first step toward a future that includes an Indian space station and, eventually, a human journey to the Moon.