The Overlapping Worlds of Orbit
Space has always captured the human imagination as a final frontier for exploration and discovery. It’s often seen as a pristine domain for science and international cooperation, exemplified by missions that send rovers to Mars or telescopes to peer into the universe’s origins. Yet, alongside this peaceful pursuit of knowledge, space has been an arena for national security and military interests since the first satellite reached orbit. The technologies that enable one often enable the other. This overlap is the world of dual-use space technologies – systems, hardware, and services that have both civilian and military applications.
Understanding dual-use is fundamental to understanding the modern space environment. It’s not about a specific type of “space weapon.” It’s about the inherent nature of the technology itself. A rocket capable of launching a weather satellite can also launch a spy satellite. A communication network that provides internet to rural communities can also coordinate military drones. A robotic arm designed to repair a friendly satellite could, in theory, be used to interfere with an adversary’s.
This inherent duality creates a complex and often tense landscape. The lines between commercial, civil, and military activities are becoming increasingly blurred. The rapid growth of the private space sector, often called NewSpace, adds another layer of complexity, with commercial companies providing capabilities that were once the exclusive domain of global superpowers. These companies serve a diverse clientele, including scientific agencies, corporations, and defense departments. The article explores the most significant dual-use technologies and services, their applications, and the geopolitical implications of a space domain where intent can be as ambiguous as the technology itself.
The Foundation of Dual-Use: Satellite Technology
Satellites are the cornerstone of the space ecosystem, and their capabilities are intrinsically dual-use. From observing the Earth to providing precise location data, the information and services they generate serve a vast array of peaceful and military functions. Three areas in particular highlight this duality: Earth observation, navigation and timing, and communications.
Earth Observation and Remote Sensing
Earth observation (EO) involves using satellites to scan and photograph the planet. The data gathered is invaluable for a wide range of applications, creating a multi-billion dollar industry and providing a public good. For civilians, EO satellites are essential for weather forecasting. Agencies like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the United States use their satellite fleets to track hurricanes, predict weather patterns, and issue warnings that save lives. Scientists use EO data to monitor climate change, tracking the melting of polar ice caps, rates of deforestation in the Amazon, and changes in sea levels.
The Copernicus Programme, managed by the European Space Agency (ESA), provides a wealth of free and open data used for environmental monitoring, urban planning, and agricultural management. Farmers can use satellite imagery to monitor crop health and optimize water use, while city planners can track urban sprawl. In the event of natural disasters like earthquakes or floods, the International Charter ‘Space and Major Disasters’mobilizes satellites from various nations to provide rescue teams with timely imagery of the affected areas.
The military application of this same technology is Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR). The ability to see what’s happening on the ground from space is a massive strategic advantage. Military and intelligence agencies use high-resolution imagery to monitor the military buildups of other nations, track the movement of naval fleets, identify potential targets, and assess battle damage after a strike. A satellite that can take a picture of a shrinking glacier can also take a picture of a new missile silo under construction.
The distinction between civilian and military EO has become less clear with the rise of commercial satellite imagery providers. Companies like Planet Labs, Maxar Technologies, and Airbus Defence and Space operate large constellations of satellites that capture high-resolution images of the entire planet, often on a daily basis. They sell this imagery and data analytics to a wide range of customers, including agricultural corporations, financial institutions, news organizations, and defense and intelligence agencies.
This commercialization has two major effects. First, it democratizes access to high-quality satellite imagery that was once only available to a few powerful nations. News outlets and non-governmental organizations can use this imagery to expose human rights abuses or verify claims made by governments. Second, it means that commercial satellites are now a part of the national security infrastructure. A government can supplement its own classified spy satellites with imagery purchased from a commercial provider. This also makes those commercial satellites potential targets in a conflict, blurring the line between civilian and military assets.
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services are perhaps the most pervasive dual-use space technology, deeply integrated into the fabric of modern life. The most well-known system is the Global Positioning System (GPS), a constellation of satellites operated by the U.S. Space Force. Although it’s now a global utility, GPS was developed and funded by the U.S. Department of Defense for purely military purposes.
The civilian applications of GPS are nearly endless. It’s the technology that allows ride-sharing apps to function, car navigation systems to guide drivers, and smartphones to geotag photos. The timing signal from GPS satellites is just as important. It’s used to synchronize cellular networks, manage power grids, and timestamp financial transactions on global stock exchanges with microsecond accuracy. The logistics industry depends on GPS to track shipments, and precision agriculture uses it to guide automated tractors for planting and harvesting.
The military uses of GPS are equally extensive and represent the system’s original purpose. It provides soldiers, ships, and aircraft with precise location data anywhere on Earth. Its most significant military function is guiding precision munitions. A GPS-guided bomb or missile can strike a target with incredible accuracy, minimizing collateral damage and increasing effectiveness. The system is used to coordinate the movement of troops, guide unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and provide a common operational picture for commanders.
For many years, the U.S. military reserved the highest accuracy signal for its own use through a feature called Selective Availability, which intentionally degraded the signal for civilian users. This practice was discontinued in 2000, allowing everyone access to the same high-quality signal. However, the U.S. government retains the ability to deny GPS service in a specific geographic area during a conflict.
This reliance on a U.S.-controlled system prompted other global powers to develop their own PNT constellations. Russia operates GLONASS, the European Union developed Galileo, and China built the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. While Galileo is under civilian control, GLONASS and BeiDou, like GPS, have their roots in military requirements. These systems ensure that their respective nations and allies have guaranteed access to PNT services, even if access to GPS were to be denied. All these systems are inherently dual-use, providing free services to civilians worldwide while serving as critical national security assets for their operators.
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)
Satellite communications (SATCOM) is another domain where civilian and military applications are deeply intertwined. Satellites act as relays in the sky, transmitting data – whether it’s a phone call, a television broadcast, or an internet packet – across vast distances.
On the civilian side, SATCOM connects remote and underserved areas that lack terrestrial infrastructure. It provides internet access on airplanes and cruise ships. Companies like Viasat and Inmarsat have long provided these services using satellites in geostationary orbit, appearing fixed in the sky. More recently, large constellations of satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO), such as SpaceX’s Starlink and the network operated by OneWeb, are offering high-speed, low-latency internet to a global user base. These networks are revolutionizing global connectivity.
The military relies heavily on SATCOM for beyond-line-of-sight communications. It’s the backbone of global command and control, allowing leaders in a home country to communicate with deployed forces anywhere in the world. These communications are typically encrypted and use dedicated military satellites, such as the U.S. military’s Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) system, which are designed to be resistant to jamming.
SATCOM is also essential for controlling unmanned systems. Long-range drones like the MQ-9 Reaper are often piloted by operators located thousands of miles away, with the control signals relayed via satellite. This allows for persistent surveillance and strike capabilities without risking a pilot’s life.
As with imagery, the commercial SATCOM sector is increasingly serving military needs. Defense departments are major customers of commercial SATCOM providers, using their services to supplement the capacity of dedicated military systems. This “SATCOM as a service” model can be more cost-effective and provides resilience. If one system is unavailable, traffic can be routed through another.
The war in Ukraine has dramatically illustrated the dual-use nature of modern SATCOM. The Starlink service, a commercial system designed to provide global internet, became a vital tool for the Ukrainian military. It provided resilient communications for command and control after other systems were destroyed or disrupted. This demonstrated how a commercial LEO internet constellation could have a direct impact on a military conflict, making the company and its assets part of the strategic equation. It also raised new questions about the role and responsibilities of commercial providers in times of war.
Launch Capabilities and Space Access
The ability to place assets into orbit is the foundational capability for all space activities, and it’s inherently dual-use. The rockets that carry satellites into space are agnostic about their payload’s purpose. The same vehicle can launch a scientific probe to Jupiter, a commercial communications satellite, or a military reconnaissance satellite.
Rockets and Launch Vehicles
The history of space launch is inseparable from the development of ballistic missiles. The space race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War was driven by this technological duality. The German V-2 rocket from World War II became the basis for early American and Soviet rocket designs. The Soviet R-7 Semyorka, the missile that was designed to carry a nuclear warhead to the U.S., was the same rocket that launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, and carried Yuri Gagarin into orbit. In the U.S., early satellites were launched on rockets derived from the Thor and Atlas intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
This legacy continues today. A nation that demonstrates the ability to place a satellite into orbit has also demonstrated the technical capability to deliver a payload to any point on the globe. This is why space launch programs, even when framed as purely civilian, are often viewed with suspicion by other nations.
Today, the launch market includes a mix of government-run and commercial providers. In the United States, the United Launch Alliance (ULA), a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin, and SpaceX are the primary providers of launch services for national security missions for the U.S. Space Force. They also launch civilian satellites for NASA and commercial satellites for various companies. Europe’s Arianespace, Russia’s state corporation Roscosmos, and the China National Space Administration (CNSA) operate in a similar fashion, serving both government and commercial customers. The technology of the launch vehicle – its engines, guidance systems, and structures – is dual-use.
Spaceports
The ground infrastructure used for launching rockets is also frequently dual-use. Spaceports require vast, remote areas for safety and security, making them valuable national assets. The United States has a clear example of this at Florida’s “Space Coast.” The Kennedy Space Center is a NASA facility and is famous for launching the Apollo missions and the Space Shuttle. Right next to it is the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, from which most national security payloads are launched. The launchpads and support infrastructure are often shared or co-located, serving both civil and military needs.
Other nations have similar arrangements. Russia uses the Plesetsk Cosmodrome primarily for military launches and the Vostochny Cosmodrome for civilian ones, but the capabilities overlap. China launches both civil and military missions from its various sites, including the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. Access to a domestic spaceport is a key element of a nation’s ability to operate independently in space, ensuring it can launch its satellites, whether for scientific or security purposes, on its own schedule.
On-Orbit Services and Activities
The dual-use nature of space technology extends beyond satellites and rockets to the activities conducted in orbit. A new generation of technologies is enabling satellites to interact with each other in complex ways. These on-orbit servicing, assembly, and manufacturing (OSAM) capabilities promise to extend the life of satellites and clean up orbital debris, but they also introduce new ambiguities and potential threats.
Space Situational Awareness and Space Domain Awareness
You can’t operate effectively in any environment without understanding what’s going on around you. In space, this is called Space Situational Awareness (SSA). The civilian and commercial purpose of SSA is primarily about safety of flight. There are thousands of active satellites and hundreds of thousands of pieces of orbital debris, from spent rocket stages to tiny fragments from past collisions. A collision, even with a small object, could destroy a multi-million dollar satellite. SSA involves using ground-based radars and telescopes, as well as space-based sensors, to track these objects, predict their orbits, and warn satellite operators of potential conjunctions so they can maneuver out of the way. The International Space Station (ISS) has had to perform such avoidance maneuvers many times.
The military version of this is called Space Domain Awareness (SDA). It encompasses everything in SSA but adds a national security lens. SDA is not just about avoiding accidental collisions; it’s about understanding the space environment as a potential battlefield. Military operators track not only debris but also the satellites of other nations. They seek to characterize these satellites: What is their mission? What are their capabilities? Are they maneuvering in an unusual or threatening way? SDA is about maintaining a catalogue of all objects in orbit and being able to detect and attribute any hostile act.
The U.S. Space Force’s 18th Space Defense Squadron is responsible for maintaining the public catalogue of space objects. However, a growing number of commercial companies like LeoLabs and ExoAnalytic Solutions are building their own networks of sensors. They provide SSA data as a service to commercial and government clients, again blurring the lines between public and private, civil and military domains.
Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO)
Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO) refers to the ability of one spacecraft to approach, maneuver around, and potentially interact with another spacecraft in orbit. This is a highly sophisticated capability that has a wide range of beneficial applications.
The most prominent civilian use of RPO is on-orbit servicing. Satellites can run out of fuel or suffer mechanical failures. Historically, such a satellite would simply become a piece of space junk. With RPO technology, a servicing vehicle can approach the satellite, dock with it, and refuel it or make repairs, extending its operational life. Northrop Grumman’s Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV) has already demonstrated this capability by successfully docking with and taking over propulsion for two different geostationary communications satellites. Other potential applications include assembling large structures in orbit or actively removing dangerous pieces of orbital debris.
The dual-use concern arises because the same technology can be used for nefarious purposes. A satellite that can approach another to refuel or repair it can also approach to inspect it at close range, gathering intelligence on its capabilities. It could also interfere with the satellite by dazzling its sensors, physically pushing it out of its orbit, or using a robotic arm to damage an antenna or solar panel.
Several nations have been experimenting with satellites that demonstrate advanced RPO capabilities. The American military’s uncrewed X-37B spaceplane can stay in orbit for years, and its full mission is classified, leading to speculation that it is testing RPO and other technologies. Russia and China have also launched satellites that have been observed maneuvering close to other satellites.
The core problem is one of intent. There is no way to tell from the ground whether an RPO-capable satellite is a “tow truck” or a “weapon.” Its actions define its purpose, and those actions can be ambiguous. A close approach could be interpreted as an inspection for a future servicing mission or as a rehearsal for an attack. This ambiguity is destabilizing and can lead to mistrust among space-faring nations.
Emerging Technologies and Future Concerns
As technology advances, the scope of dual-use in space is set to expand into new and even more complex areas. Artificial intelligence, in-space manufacturing, and the growing importance of cybersecurity are shaping the future of space activities and the challenges associated with them.
Artificial Intelligence and Autonomy
Artificial intelligence (AI) is being integrated into space systems to manage complexity and process vast amounts of data. For civilian and commercial purposes, AI can automate the operation of large satellite constellations. Managing the orbits and health of thousands of Starlink satellites, for instance, would be impossible without a high degree of automation. AI algorithms can also sift through petabytes of Earth observation data to identify trends, such as patterns of illegal deforestation or the extent of urban growth, much faster than human analysts could. For deep space missions, AI-powered autonomy will allow probes to make decisions on their own when the communication delay with Earth is too long, for example, when navigating a landing on a distant moon.
From a military perspective, AI offers similar advantages. It can rapidly analyze ISR data from satellites to identify mobile targets or changes on a battlefield. It can also manage complex military satellite constellations, making them more resilient to attack by automatically re-routing traffic or re-tasking satellites. The dual-use concern is that AI could be used to enable offensive autonomous systems in space. A satellite equipped with AI could potentially identify a threat and take action against an adversary’s satellite without direct human intervention. This raises complex ethical questions and could lead to a rapid and uncontrollable escalation of a conflict in space.
In-Space Manufacturing and Resource Utilization
The idea of building things in space, rather than launching them from Earth, is gaining traction. In-space manufacturing, using techniques like 3D printing, could allow for the construction of large antennas, solar arrays, or even entire habitats in orbit. This would overcome the size and weight limitations imposed by the fairing of a rocket. A related concept is in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), which involves extracting resources, such as water ice or metals, from the Moon or asteroids to use in space. For example, water ice could be converted into rocket propellant.
The civilian vision for these technologies is to create a sustainable, long-term human presence in space and support ambitious exploration missions to Mars and beyond. An orbital propellant depot, refueled from lunar ice, could dramatically lower the cost of interplanetary travel.
The military implications are also significant. The ability to manufacture and repair military assets in orbit would be a major strategic advantage. It could reduce reliance on vulnerable Earth-based launch sites and supply chains. A nation could, in theory, repair a damaged reconnaissance satellite or even build a new one in orbit during a conflict. Control of resource-rich locations, such as specific craters on the Moon believed to contain water ice, could become a point of strategic competition.
Cybersecurity in Space
Space systems are not just hardware in orbit; they are part of a larger network that includes ground stations, data links, and user terminals. This entire network is vulnerable to cyberattacks. A successful cyberattack could have devastating consequences for both civilian and military users.
On the civilian side, a disruption of PNT services could cripple financial networks, transportation systems, and power grids. An attack on a communications satellite could take down internet and television services for millions of people. As society becomes more dependent on space-based services, the impact of such an attack grows.
For the military, the stakes are just as high. A cyberattack could be used to jam communications, corrupt the data from a spy satellite, or even send malicious commands to a satellite to damage it or send it tumbling out of control. This makes cybersecurity a critical component of space operations. The Viasat cyberattack that occurred at the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine is a stark example. The attack, which targeted the ground network of a commercial satellite operator, disrupted internet services for thousands of users in Europe and also reportedly had an impact on Ukrainian military communications, demonstrating how civilian infrastructure can be targeted for military ends.
Governance and Geopolitical Implications
The pervasive dual-use nature of space technology creates significant challenges for international governance. It is difficult to create rules or treaties to limit the weaponization of space when so few technologies are exclusively weapons. The core issues revolve around the difficulty of verifying intent, the limitations of existing international law, and the expanding role of the commercial sector.
The Challenge of Verification and Intent
The central problem in space arms control is that a satellite’s capabilities do not reveal its operator’s intent. A satellite with a robotic arm and the ability to get close to other satellites could be for peaceful servicing or for hostile interference. A satellite with a powerful laser could be for beaming data back to Earth at high speeds or for dazzling the sensors of another satellite.
This makes traditional arms control approaches, which focus on banning specific, verifiable categories of weapons, very difficult to apply in space. Without being able to distinguish between a peaceful tool and a potential weapon, it’s hard to build trust. Nations may view the development of any advanced RPO or servicing technology by a rival as a potential threat, leading them to develop similar capabilities in response. This dynamic can create a security dilemma and fuel a costly and destabilizing arms race in orbit.
International Law and Treaties
The foundational legal framework for space is the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. It established space as the province of all humankind and prohibited placing weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear weapons, in orbit or on celestial bodies. However, the treaty, a product of the Cold War, is silent on conventional weapons in space. It does not explicitly ban anti-satellite weapons or many of the dual-use technologies that are of concern today.
There have been ongoing discussions at the United Nations, particularly within the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), to establish new norms of responsible behavior in space. These efforts focus on promoting transparency and confidence-building measures, such as sharing information about space policies and orbital maneuvers. The goal is to create a common understanding of what constitutes safe and professional behavior in orbit, reducing the risk of miscalculation. However, progress on a new legally binding treaty has been slow due to disagreements among major space powers.
The Commercial Sector’s Role
The rise of the commercial space industry has fundamentally changed the geopolitical landscape. Companies like SpaceX, Planet Labs, and Maxar are not just contractors; they are independent actors that own and operate powerful space capabilities. As seen with Starlink in Ukraine and commercial imagery that is now ubiquitous, these companies can influence international affairs.
This new reality presents both opportunities and challenges. Commercial SSA and imagery can increase transparency, making it harder for any nation to conduct secret military activities in space or on the ground. This can act as a stabilizing force. At the same time, it means that commercial assets are now intertwined with national security. This can make them targets in a conflict and raises difficult questions for governments and companies about how to manage these relationships and protect critical commercial systems. Corporate decisions about who to provide service to can have direct strategic consequences, turning business leaders into geopolitical actors.
Summary
The domain of space is not neatly divided into peaceful and military spheres. Nearly every technology that underpins the exploration of the cosmos and provides benefits to society on Earth also enhances the military capabilities of the nations that wield it. From the satellites that forecast our weather and guide our cars, to the rockets that launch them, to the services that will one day repair them in orbit, a dual-use character is inherent.
This reality is not new, but it has become more acute with rapid technological advancement and the proliferation of space capabilities to a growing number of nations and commercial entities. The resulting environment is one of increased complexity and ambiguity, where the line between a civilian tool and a military threat is often a matter of perception and intent.
Managing the risks posed by dual-use technologies while continuing to reap their enormous benefits is one of the key challenges of the 21st century. It will require a concerted effort from the international community to promote transparency, establish clear norms of behavior, and adapt frameworks of governance to a space domain that is more crowded, competitive, and contested than ever before. The future of space as a peaceful and sustainable environment for all depends on navigating these overlapping worlds with foresight and cooperation.
