The Foundations of Space Launch
A spaceport is far more than a simple launch pad; it is a complex and strategic piece of infrastructure, a terrestrial anchor for a nation’s or a company’s ambitions in orbit and beyond. These gateways to space are not placed arbitrarily. Their locations are the result of a careful calculation involving physics, geography, politics, and economics. Understanding these foundational principles is essential to appreciating why the global map of space launch activity looks the way it does.
The Geography of Launch
To place a satellite into orbit, a rocket must achieve not only a sufficient altitude to escape the thickest parts of the atmosphere but also a tremendous horizontal velocity—roughly 7 kilometers per second for low Earth orbit. The physics of achieving this speed dictates where launch sites are most effectively built.
The most significant geographical advantage comes from proximity to the equator. Because the Earth rotates from west to east, any point on its surface is already moving. This rotational speed is fastest at the equator (about 465 m/s) and decreases with latitude, dropping to zero at the poles. By launching eastward from a site near the equator, a rocket gets a natural velocity boost from the planet’s own motion. This “head start” reduces the amount of propellant needed to reach orbital speeds, which in turn means the same rocket can carry a heavier payload or send its payload to a higher orbit. This advantage is especially pronounced for missions to geostationary orbit (GEO), a high-altitude ring directly above the equator that is critical for communication satellites.
Not all missions, however, benefit from an equatorial, eastward launch. Earth observation, weather, and many reconnaissance satellites require polar or near-polar orbits, which pass over or near the Earth’s poles. These missions necessitate a northward or southward launch trajectory and do not gain an advantage from the Earth’s eastward rotation. For these launches, the most important geographic feature is a clear flight path over an unpopulated area, typically a large expanse of open ocean.
This leads to the concept of launch azimuths and drop zones. A rocket’s launch azimuth is its compass heading upon liftoff. As a rocket ascends, it jettisons its massive, spent stages. These stages fall back to Earth in designated “drop zones.” To ensure public safety and avoid international incidents, these drop zones must not contain populated areas or fall within the territory of uncooperative foreign nations. This requirement severely restricts the available launch azimuths from any given spaceport. For example, Cape Canaveral in Florida is constrained by the U.S. East Coast to its north and the Caribbean islands to its south, limiting its launches to a corridor between roughly 35 and 120 degrees—generally to the east.
Politics, Environment, and Practicality
While geography and physics set the ideal conditions, political, environmental, and practical considerations often play a decisive role in a spaceport’s location and operation.
One of the most powerful drivers is national sovereignty. Most space-faring nations build launch sites within their own territory to guarantee unfettered access. The most prominent exception is the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Established by the Soviet Union in the Kazakh SSR, it became foreign territory for Russia after Kazakhstan’s independence in 1991. Today, Russia pays Kazakhstan approximately $115 million a year to lease the historic facility, a politically complex and expensive arrangement that has driven Russia to invest heavily in new, sovereign launch sites.
Regional geopolitics can override even the most basic principles of physics. Israel’s Palmachim Airbase on the Mediterranean coast is a prime example. To avoid flying over hostile neighboring countries to its east, all of its orbital launches are directed westward. This requires its rockets to fly against the Earth’s rotation, a significant performance penalty that necessitates more powerful rockets for the same payload compared to an eastward launch.
Environmental factors also impose constraints. The Florida coast, home to Cape Canaveral, is prone to powerful hurricanes that can damage facilities and delay missions. Vandenberg in California faces a perennial risk of wildfires that can halt launch preparations. High-altitude winds are a common cause for launch scrubs at sites around the world, including the Guiana Space Centre and Rocket Lab‘s complex in New Zealand. Site selection and construction must account for these risks. Japan, for instance, located its primary spaceports in a southern region less prone to the severe earthquakes that affect other parts of the country.
Finally, many of the world’s most important spaceports did not start from scratch. They evolved from pre-existing military installations, specifically intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) test ranges. Sites like Plesetsk in Russia and Vandenberg in the U.S. were originally chosen for their remoteness and strategic value during the Cold War. They already possessed the necessary infrastructure—launch pads, tracking systems, and secure perimeters—that could be adapted for space launch, giving them a legacy that continues to shape global launch activity today.
The very definition of a “spaceport” is also in flux. The term once exclusively referred to large, government-owned complexes for launching massive vertical rockets. Today, it is applied to a much broader spectrum of facilities. This includes the traditional stalwarts, but also commercially operated, multi-tenant launch sites, and even facilities licensed by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) that are little more than specialized airports with runways intended for horizontal, air-launch systems. Many of these horizontal-focused sites, such as those in Oklahoma and Cecil, Florida, have seen their flagship tenants go bankrupt without ever achieving regular operations, casting doubt on the business model. In stark contrast, vertical launch sites like Cape Canaveral are experiencing record-breaking launch rates, and new vertical sites like SaxaVord in Scotland are attracting multiple launch providers before they are even fully operational. This divergence is critical; not all facilities that carry the “spaceport” name possess the same proven capability to provide access to orbit. The modern landscape is a mix of orbital gateways, aerospace industrial parks, and speculative ventures.
The Global Stalwarts: Major Active Spaceports
For decades, the world’s access to space has been dominated by a handful of large, government-founded spaceports. These sites have been the backbone of national security, scientific exploration, and human spaceflight, and they continue to adapt to a new era of commercial activity.
United States
Cape Canaveral Space Force Station & Kennedy Space Center, Florida
Key Information
Location
28.6∘N,80.6∘W
Operator
U.S. Space Force / NASA
First Orbital Launch
February 1, 1958
Status
Active
Homepage
https://www.patrick.spaceforce.mil (CCSFS)
https://www.nasa.gov/kennedy/ (KSC)
The sprawling launch facilities on Florida’s “Space Coast” are the heart of America’s space program. Founded in 1949 as the Joint Long Range Proving Ground, the site at Cape Canaveral was selected for its favorable southern latitude, eastward launch trajectory over the Atlantic Ocean, and the support of the nearby Banana River Naval Air Station (now Patrick Space Force Base). It was from here that the United States launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, in 1958, and all of its pioneering crewed Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions. To support the immense scale of the Apollo Program, NASA built the adjacent Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on Merritt Island in the 1960s, including the colossal Vehicle Assembly Building designed to stack the Saturn V moon rocket.
Today, the Cape is a bustling, premier multi-user spaceport. The U.S. Space Force’s Space Launch Delta 45 operates Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS), while NASA operates KSC. This dual arrangement has transformed the area into a vibrant ecosystem where government missions and commercial enterprise coexist. Historic launch pads have been leased and modernized by private companies. SpaceX launches its Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets from Space Launch Complex 40 (SLC-40) and the historic Launch Complex 39A, the former Apollo and Shuttle pad. Blue Origin has leased Launch Complex 36 for its New Glenn rocket. The launch cadence has exploded, with a record 72 launches in 2023 and projections for up to 130 in the coming years. This surge in activity has spurred the development of a new Cape Canaveral Spaceport Master Plan to manage future growth in launch, payload processing, and spacecraft reentry. The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex also serves as a major tourism and public outreach destination, allowing the public to witness launches up close.
The future of the Space Coast is defined by this intense activity. It will remain the primary launch site for NASA‘s Artemis missions to the Moon and the commercial crew program that ferries astronauts to the International Space Station. The Master Plan will guide infrastructure development to ensure the spaceport can handle the demands of multiple government and commercial users simultaneously. SpaceX is even preparing to launch crewed missions from SLC-40, further expanding the Cape’s human spaceflight capabilities.
Vandenberg Space Force Base, California
Key Information
Location
34.6∘N,120.6∘W
Operator
U.S. Space Force
First Orbital Launch
February 28, 1959
Status
Active
Homepage
https://www.vandenberg.spaceforce.mil
Vandenberg Space Force Base, located on the rugged coast of Southern California, is the United States’ primary gateway to polar orbit. Its history began with missile testing; the remote location was ideal for safely launching ICBMs westward over the Pacific Ocean. After the launch of Sputnik, its unique geography was recognized as perfect for launching satellites into high-inclination polar orbits. A southward launch from Vandenberg sends rockets over open water, avoiding populated areas in California and Mexico, a capability the East Coast’s Cape Canaveral lacks. For decades, it was the world’s leading spaceport for polar-orbiting satellites, particularly for military reconnaissance and Earth-imaging missions.
Presently, Vandenberg is operated by the U.S. Space Force’s Space Launch Delta 30 and maintains its critical dual role. It is the primary test site for the U.S. ICBM force, conducting regular operational tests of the Minuteman III missile. It also serves as a key launch site for national security payloads and commercial customers requiring polar orbits. SpaceX is a major tenant, launching its Falcon 9 rocket from Space Launch Complex 4 (SLC-4) for its Starlink satellite constellation and other missions.
Vandenberg’s future is secure as the nation’s indispensable West Coast launch facility. It will continue to support the full spectrum of polar missions, from classified government satellites to commercial Earth observation constellations. Its established infrastructure and unique launch corridors ensure it will remain a vital asset for both national security and the commercial space industry for years to come.
Russia
Plesetsk Cosmodrome
Key Information
Location
62.9∘N,40.6∘E
Operator
Russian Aerospace Forces
First Orbital Launch
March 17, 1966
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Plesetsk Cosmodrome, nestled in the forests of the Arkhangelsk region some 800 km north of Moscow, is the world’s most prolific spaceport by sheer number of launches. Its origins are rooted in Cold War strategy. Founded in 1957, it was the Soviet Union’s first ICBM launch base, its extreme northern latitude chosen to place the continental United States within range of early ballistic missiles. For 17 years, its existence as a spaceport was an official secret, not acknowledged by the Soviet government until 1983, long after amateur satellite trackers in the UK had deduced its location. Its high latitude makes it very inefficient for launching satellites to equatorial or geostationary orbits, a task left to Baikonur.
Today, Plesetsk remains Russia’s primary military spaceport, operated by the Russian Aerospace Forces. It is the workhorse for deploying military satellites into polar and high-inclination orbits. Recent launches have included the reliable Soyuz-2.1b rocket carrying defense spacecraft and, significantly, the new-generation Angara-A5 heavy-lift rocket. The Angara family, which uses cleaner-burning propellants, was developed specifically to ensure Russia has independent, sovereign access to space and to reduce its reliance on foreign components and the Baikonur Cosmodrome.
The future of Plesetsk is inextricably linked to Russia’s military space ambitions. It will continue to serve as the main launch site for the nation’s strategic military satellites. The operationalization of the Angara rocket from Plesetsk is a key part of this future, providing a modern, domestically produced heavy-lift capability from within Russia’s own borders. This capability is essential for maintaining and modernizing Russia’s constellation of navigation, communication, and reconnaissance satellites, and for launching modules to a planned future Russian orbital station.
Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
Key Information
Location
46.0∘N,63.3∘E
Operator
Russian Aerospace Forces / Roscosmos (Russia)
First Orbital Launch
October 4, 1957
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
No place is more steeped in the history of space exploration than the Baikonur Cosmodrome. From this remote patch of the Kazakh steppe, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957, and the first human into space, Yuri Gagarin, in 1961. Founded in 1955 when Kazakhstan was a Soviet republic, its location was chosen for its relatively low latitude compared to other Soviet sites and its vast, open plains to the east, providing a safe drop zone for rocket stages. For the entire Cold War, it was the USSR’s premier spaceport for all major initiatives, including human spaceflight and missions to GEO.
The present-day status of Baikonur is complex and fraught with geopolitical tension. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has leased the sprawling facility from the independent nation of Kazakhstan, an arrangement that currently costs $115 million per year and is set to run until 2050. It remains the only spaceport in the world capable of launching crewed missions to the International Space Station. However, Russia’s relationship with its host nation has become increasingly strained, particularly following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. In 2023, Kazakh authorities seized control of the Baiterek launch complex at Baikonur, a joint Kazakh-Russian venture, citing millions in unpaid debt by Roscosmos. Gagarin’s Start, the pad from which Gagarin launched, has failed to secure funding for modernization and is planned to be deactivated and turned into a museum. Amid this decline, Kazakhstan is heavily promoting tourism to the site, with thousands of visitors now traveling to watch launches and tour the historic facilities.
Baikonur’s future as a top-tier spaceport is in doubt. The geopolitical friction provides a powerful incentive for Russia to accelerate its move away from the site. The Russian space agency is deliberately shifting investment and future missions, especially high-value government and crewed launches, to its new Vostochny Cosmodrome on Russian soil. While Baikonur will likely continue to host some commercial and crewed Soyuz launches for the remainder of its lease, its strategic importance to Russia is rapidly fading. It is slowly transitioning from a vital strategic asset to a living museum and tourist destination.
The deteriorating situation at Baikonur is more than a bilateral issue; it is a catalyst for a major realignment of global launch partnerships. As Russia is strategically forced to retreat to its sovereign launch sites like Vostochny and Plesetsk, it creates both a vacuum and an opportunity on the world stage. The suspension of Russian Soyuz rocket launches from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana, a direct consequence of the war in Ukraine, left Europe without a medium-lift rocket and scrambling for alternatives. This instability has opened the door for new, non-Western alliances to form. Brazil, whose geographically superb Alcântara Launch Center has languished for decades after partnerships with the U.S. and Ukraine failed to materialize, is now aggressively courting China as a launch partner. A successful partnership would give China access to one of the world’s best equatorial launch sites while finally activating a key Brazilian national asset. The ripple effects from Baikonur’s decline are thus fundamentally reshaping the global launch market, pushing nations toward sovereign capabilities and fostering the emergence of new geopolitical space blocs.
Vostochny Cosmodrome
Key Information
Location
51.9∘N,128.3∘E
Operator
Roscosmos (Russia)
First Orbital Launch
April 28, 2016
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Vostochny Cosmodrome, located in Russia’s far eastern Amur Oblast, represents the future of Russia’s civil space program. The decision to build the new spaceport was announced in 2007, the same year the nearby, post-Soviet Svobodny Cosmodrome was shuttered. The entire project is a massive strategic undertaking with a single, clear goal: to guarantee Russia’s sovereign access to space and end its long-term dependency on the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.
After its first successful orbital launch in 2016, Vostochny is now an operational spaceport. It currently supports launches of the Soyuz-2 rocket, carrying a variety of payloads, including commercial satellites and small CubeSats for scientific and educational projects supported by Roscosmos. The site is still undergoing significant construction and expansion.
Vostochny is the centerpiece of Russia’s 21st-century space ambitions. Infrastructure is being built out to support the new Angara rocket family, which will become Russia’s primary heavy-lift vehicle. Crucially, Vostochny is being developed to host all of Russia’s future human spaceflight missions, replacing Baikonur in this prestigious role once a new human-rated spacecraft is ready. This long-term, multi-billion-dollar investment underscores Russia’s determination to maintain its status as a major space power, operating from its own territory.
Europe
Guiana Space Centre, French Guiana
Key Information
Location
5.2∘N,52.8∘W
Operator
ESA / CNES (Europe / France)
First Orbital Launch
March 10, 1970
Status
Active
Homepage
https://centrespatialguyanais.cnes.fr/en
Often called “Europe’s Spaceport,” the Guiana Space Centre (Centre Spatial Guyanais, or CSG) enjoys one of the most geographically advantageous locations on Earth. After France lost access to its launch site in Algeria in 1967, the French space agency, CNES, selected Kourou in the overseas department of French Guiana as its replacement. The choice was driven by physics: at a latitude of just 5 degrees north of the equator, it offers the maximum possible velocity boost from Earth’s rotation for eastward launches. Combined with a sparse population and open sea to the north and east, it is an ideal site for efficiently launching heavy satellites into geostationary orbit.
Today, the CSG is operated by CNES and serves as the primary launch site for the European Space Agency (ESA) and the commercial launch provider Arianespace. It is the home of Europe’s flagship launchers. The new heavy-lift Ariane 6 rocket conducted its inaugural flight from the site’s new ELA-4 launch pad in July 2024, and the smaller Vega-C rocket is also operational. The launch pad built to support the Russian Soyuz rocket, which provided Europe with a medium-lift capability, is now inactive following the severing of ties with Roscosmos in 2022.
The future of the Guiana Space Centre is focused on ensuring independent European access to space with its new generation of rockets. The Ariane 6 and Vega-C are the cornerstones of this strategy. To remain competitive, the spaceport is also diversifying its portfolio beyond Arianespace. It has successfully attracted new commercial launch companies, such as Germany’s Isar Aerospace, which plans to launch its rockets from the site, transforming the CSG into a true multi-user spaceport.
China
Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center
Key Information
Location
41.0∘N,100.3∘E
Operator
People’s Liberation Army
First Orbital Launch
April 24, 1970
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
Jiuquan is the birthplace of the Chinese space program. Established in 1958 in the vast Gobi Desert with initial support from the Soviet Union, it is China’s oldest and most famous spaceport. From this site, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong 1, in 1970. More significantly, Jiuquan is the exclusive home of China’s human spaceflight program; every Chinese astronaut, or taikonaut, has launched from here aboard a Shenzhou spacecraft, including all missions to the Tiangong space station.
The center remains a cornerstone of China’s space activities. Operated by the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), it continues its prestigious role as the launch site for all crewed missions, with recent preparations underway for the Shenzhou-20 flight. In addition to its government role, Jiuquan has become a key hub for China’s rapidly growing commercial space sector. Its multiple launch pads host flights of various Long March rockets and have been used by private companies like i-Space and LandSpace for their first orbital launch attempts.
Jiuquan’s future is twofold. It will continue to be the sole gateway for China’s taikonauts for the foreseeable future, with crewed missions like Shenzhou 20 and 21 already planned for 2025. At the same time, its role as an incubator and launch provider for the country’s burgeoning private rocket industry will expand, making it a critical dual-use facility for both state-run prestige projects and commercial innovation.
Xichang Satellite Launch Center
Key Information
Location
28.3∘N,102.0∘E
Operator
People’s Liberation Army
First Orbital Launch
January 29, 1984
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
For many years, the Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XSLC) was China’s busiest spaceport and its primary access point to high-altitude geostationary orbits. Situated in a mountainous, landlocked part of the Sichuan province, it was also the site of one of China’s most notorious launch disasters in 1996, when a Long March 3B rocket veered off course and crashed into a nearby village. The inland location remains a safety concern even for successful launches, as spent rocket stages frequently fall in or near populated areas, requiring evacuations.
Despite these challenges, Xichang remains a workhorse of the Chinese space program. It maintains a very high launch cadence, primarily using the Long March-3B rocket to deploy communication, navigation, and other satellites to GEO. A recent launch in June 2025, for example, successfully placed the Chinasat-9C satellite into its intended orbit.
Looking ahead, Xichang will likely continue its role as a high-frequency launch site, supporting the build-out and replenishment of China’s extensive satellite constellations. However, with the opening of the more modern and geographically superior Wenchang launch site on the coast, Xichang’s role in launching China’s most important and heaviest flagship missions may gradually diminish.
Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center
Key Information
Location
38.9∘N,111.6∘E
Operator
People’s Liberation Army
First Orbital Launch
September 6, 1988
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center is China’s specialized gateway to polar orbits. Established in 1966 and supporting its first orbital launch in 1988, this inland facility is primarily used to place satellites into sun-synchronous orbits, which are ideal for Earth observation and reconnaissance. Like China’s other older spaceports, it is also used for ballistic missile testing.
Taiyuan continues to fulfill its specialized mission today. It regularly launches remote sensing, meteorological, and military reconnaissance satellites, such as those in the Yaogan series, on various Long March rockets. A launch in May 2025, for instance, used a modified Long March-6 rocket to send a group of Yaogan-40 satellites into orbit to conduct electromagnetic environment detection.
The future of Taiyuan is secure within China’s broader space strategy. It will remain the country’s primary mainland site for launching payloads to polar and sun-synchronous orbits, complementing the capabilities of the other launch centers and supporting China’s extensive military and civil Earth observation programs.
Wenchang Space Launch Site
Key Information
Location
19.6∘N,111.0∘E
Operator
People’s Liberation Army
First Orbital Launch
November 3, 2016
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Wenchang Space Launch Site on the southern island province of Hainan is China’s newest and most capable spaceport. Opened in 2016, its location is its greatest asset. At just 19.6 degrees north of the equator, it is China’s southernmost launch site, offering significant performance gains for geostationary missions. Its coastal location allows rockets to launch over the South China Sea, eliminating the risk of spent stages falling on populated areas. It is also the only Chinese spaceport that can handle the country’s largest rockets, the Long March 5 and Long March 7, whose wide core stages are too large to be transported by rail and must be delivered by sea. Uniquely among China’s military-run sites, Wenchang was also designed to be accessible to the public and is a growing tourist destination.
After an early setback with a Long March 5 failure in 2017, the site is now fully operational and launching frequently. It supports missions with the Long March 7A and the heavy-lift Long March 5, such as the successful launch of the ChinaSat 3B communication satellite in May 2025.
Wenchang is the key to China’s future in space. It is the designated launch site for the large modules of China’s permanent space station and for the nation’s ambitious robotic and eventual human missions to the Moon. Its heavy-lift capabilities are indispensable for China to pursue its deep space exploration goals and to compete on the global stage.
India
Satish Dhawan Space Centre
Key Information
Location
13.7∘N,80.2∘E
Operator
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
First Orbital Launch
July 18, 1980
Status
Active
Homepage
The Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), located on Sriharikota island off India’s eastern coast, is the sole orbital launch facility of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Since its first successful orbital launch in 1980, it has been the launch point for all of India’s space missions. The site’s favorable low latitude and eastward position over the Bay of Bengal allow it to support a wide variety of missions.
Today, SDSC is a highly active and versatile spaceport. It launches India’s two main rocket families: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), known for its reliability and for setting a world record by launching 104 satellites on a single flight, and the more powerful Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for heavier payloads. The center supports missions to all orbital regimes, including LEO, GEO, and ambitious interplanetary probes to the Moon and Mars. The site is a hub of activity, recently celebrating its 100th launch from Sriharikota and serving as the focal point for public awareness and development related to India’s upcoming human spaceflight program, Gaganyaan.
The future of the Satish Dhawan Space Centre is defined by India’s goal to become a top-tier space power. The most significant development is the upgrade of its facilities to support the Gaganyaan program, which plans to launch Indian astronauts into orbit on an Indian rocket from Indian soil by 2022. This national prestige project will make India only the fourth country in the world to achieve independent human spaceflight capability and will cement SDSC’s status as a world-class spaceport.
Japan
Tanegashima Space Center
Key Information
Location
30.4∘N,131.0∘E
Operator
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
First Orbital Launch
September 9, 1975
Status
Active
Homepage
https://global.jaxa.jp/about/centers/tnsc/
The Tanegashima Space Center (TNSC) is Japan’s largest and primary rocket launch complex. Located on the southern coast of Tanegashima Island, it is renowned as one of the most beautiful spaceports in the world. Since its first orbital launch in 1975, TNSC has been responsible for all of Japan’s heavy-lift space launches, including missions to GEO and cargo resupply flights to the International Space Station using the H-II family of rockets.
Operated by JAXA, Tanegashima is a modern, active facility. It features extensive infrastructure, including large vehicle assembly buildings, spacecraft test facilities, and a command center. It also hosts a public-facing Space Museum with full-scale models and interactive exhibits, offering bus tours of the launch facilities to visitors. JAXA is actively developing its next-generation launch vehicles, including the H3 rocket, which will be the workhorse of Japan’s future space activities.
Tanegashima’s future role is to serve as the launch site for the new H3 rocket. The H3 is designed to be more affordable, reliable, and flexible than its predecessors, allowing Japan to compete more effectively in the global commercial launch market. The center will continue to launch Japan’s major scientific missions, such as the GOSAT-GW Earth observation satellite, and support its international commitments.
Uchinoura Space Center
Key Information
Location
31.3∘N,131.1∘E
Operator
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
First Orbital Launch
February 11, 1970
Status
Active
Homepage
https://global.jaxa.jp/about/centers/usc/
The Uchinoura Space Center (USC) is Japan’s original spaceport, a historic site from which the nation first reached orbit. Established in 1962 on a hilly peninsula in Kagoshima Prefecture, it successfully launched Japan’s first satellite, “OHSUMI,” in 1970 after four previous failures. Historically, USC has been the center for Japan’s solid-fueled rockets and scientific space exploration, operated by JAXA’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS).
Uchinoura remains an active and important facility for specialized missions. It is less utilized than the heavy-lift Tanegashima site but plays a key role in launching scientific satellites and sounding rockets. In a notable achievement in 2018, it was used to launch a satellite on a modified SS-520 sounding rocket, the smallest vehicle ever to place an object into orbit. The site also hosts large tracking antennas that are part of JAXA’s deep space network.
The future of Uchinoura lies in its continued role as a dedicated site for space science and smaller launch vehicles. It is the home of Japan’s Epsilon rocket, a modern, solid-fueled launcher designed for rapid and low-cost deployment of small satellites. This capability complements the heavy-lift capacity of Tanegashima, giving Japan a flexible and comprehensive range of launch options for scientific and commercial missions.
The New Wave: Commercial and Specialized Launch Sites
The 21st century has witnessed a dramatic shift in the space launch landscape. The rise of private enterprise and the evolving needs of national security have led to the emergence of a new category of spaceports, from purely commercial ventures to highly specialized government facilities.
The Commercial Vanguard
Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 (New Zealand) & Launch Complex 2 (Virginia, USA)
Key Information (LC-1)
Location
39.3∘S,177.9∘E (Māhia, New Zealand)
Operator
First Orbital Launch
January 21, 2018
Status
Active
Homepage
Rocket Lab‘s Launch Complex 1 (LC-1) on the remote Māhia Peninsula of New Zealand’s North Island is a landmark in commercial spaceflight. Opened in 2016, it is the world’s first fully private orbital launch site, owned and operated by a single company. The location was chosen for its ability to support a high frequency of launches into a wide range of orbital inclinations with minimal air and marine traffic to clear. Since its first successful launch in 2018, LC-1 has become a workhorse for the small satellite industry, achieving a high launch cadence with its Electron rocket and deploying over 146 satellites by mid-2022. The company is now pioneering reusability for small rockets, conducting missions from LC-1 that involve catching the Electron’s first stage mid-air with a helicopter as it descends under a parachute, a key step toward making it a reusable launch vehicle.
To better serve the U.S. government and commercial markets, Rocket Lab established a second launch site, Launch Complex 2 (LC-2), within the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) at Wallops Island, Virginia. Construction began in 2019, and after delays in certifying the rocket’s autonomous flight termination system, the first mission, aptly named “Virginia is for Launch Lovers,” successfully lifted off on January 24, 2023. LC-2 is now fully operational, launching payloads for commercial customers like HawkEye 360 and national security missions for the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). The expansion continues, with a third launch pad (LC-3) already under construction at Wallops, solidifying Rocket Lab’s position as a leading global launch provider with flexible, responsive launch sites in both hemispheres.
SpaceX Starbase, Texas
Key Information
Location
26.0∘N,97.2∘W (Boca Chica, Texas)
Operator
First Orbital Launch
N/A (Flight Tests Active)
Status
Under Construction / Active Testing
Homepage
SpaceX‘s facility at Boca Chica, Texas, known as Starbase, is less a traditional spaceport and more a revolutionary rocket factory and test site combined. Construction began in 2014 for what was initially planned as a commercial launch site for Falcon 9 rockets. However, the site’s purpose was radically transformed to become the primary development, manufacturing, and launch center for Starship, SpaceX‘s next-generation, fully reusable super heavy-lift launch vehicle. From 2019 to 2021, the site hosted a series of dramatic low-altitude “hop” tests of Starship prototypes, embracing a rapid, iterative design philosophy.
Today, Starbase is a unique, vertically integrated campus where new rockets are built and tested at an unprecedented pace. Since April 2023, it has conducted multiple full-stack orbital flight tests of the complete Starship system, each one pushing the vehicle’s capabilities further. The site is in a constant state of evolution, with new manufacturing tents and launch infrastructure being built continuously. This high-risk, high-reward approach was highlighted in June 2025, when a Starship vehicle experienced a major anomaly during a ground test, resulting in its complete loss and damage to the test stand.
Starbase is the linchpin of SpaceX’s future. It is the intended launch site for the massive second-generation Starlink satellite constellation and the vehicle for NASA‘s Artemis program to land humans on the Moon. Ultimately, it is the designated launch point for the colonization of Mars. A critical technology demonstration—the orbital transfer of propellant from one Starship to another—is planned for 2025, a necessary step for any deep space mission.
Specialized Government & Commercial Facilities
Wallops Flight Facility / Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS), Virginia
Key Information
Location
37.9∘N,75.5∘W
Operator
NASA / Virginia Space
First Orbital Launch
February 16, 1961
Status
Active
Homepage
NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility on the Eastern Shore of Virginia is one of the oldest launch ranges in the United States, founded in 1945 for rocket research. While it has a long history of supporting sub-orbital sounding rocket launches for science, it has evolved into a key orbital launch site. The facility now has a unique dual-use character: NASA operates the range and supports its own science missions, while the co-located Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS), a state-owned entity, provides launch pads for commercial and military customers. MARS has hosted Northrop Grumman’s Antares rocket for cargo resupply missions to the ISS and the U.S. military’s Minotaur family of rockets.
Wallops is experiencing a renaissance as a hub for small and medium-lift launchers. The most significant recent development is the addition of Rocket Lab as a tenant. MARS now features three distinct launch pads at Launch Pad 0: Pad 0A for Antares, Pad 0B for Minotaur, and Pad 0C, which serves as Rocket Lab’s Launch Complex 2. With a busy manifest of NASA sounding rocket launches and orbital missions from its commercial tenants, Wallops is growing in importance. The construction of a fourth pad (Rocket Lab’s LC-3) is already underway, cementing the facility’s role as a vital and flexible East Coast spaceport.
Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska (PSCA)
Key Information
Location
57.4∘N,152.3∘W (Kodiak Island, Alaska)
Operator
Alaska Aerospace Corporation
First Orbital Launch
November 20, 2010
Status
Active
Homepage
The Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska (PSCA) on Kodiak Island was a trailblazer, becoming the first FAA-licensed commercial spaceport in the U.S. not located on a federal military range when it was built in 1998. Owned and operated by the state-owned Alaska Aerospace Corporation, its northern latitude and clear southern and southeastern launch corridors make it ideal for placing satellites into polar and other high-inclination orbits. The spaceport’s history has been marked by challenges, including a 2014 launch failure that caused significant damage and forced a two-year closure.
PSCA is currently an active launch site, serving as a commercial alternative to Vandenberg for polar launches. It has hosted launches for small satellite companies like Astra Space and ABL Space Systems. The operational risks of the launch business were highlighted again in 2024, when a static fire test by ABL resulted in damage to the rocket and fuel contamination at the pad, leading to an ongoing lawsuit between Alaska Aerospace and its insurers over the multi-million dollar cleanup costs.
The future of PSCA lies in its niche market. For certain missions, particularly those going to highly elliptical Molniya orbits (with an inclination of 63.4 degrees), PSCA offers a distinct advantage. Rockets can launch directly into this orbit without performing an energy-intensive “dogleg” maneuver in flight, which can provide a 15-19% payload performance benefit compared to other sites. The spaceport will continue to market this unique capability to the growing small satellite industry.
Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll
Key Information
Location
9.1∘N,167.7∘E (Marshall Islands)
Operator
U.S. Army
First Orbital Launch
September 29, 2008
Status
Active (for Missile Defense & SSA)
Homepage
(https://www.smdc.army.mil/Portals/38/Documents/Publications/Fact_Sheets/RTS.pdf)
The Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, located on Kwajalein Atoll in the Republic of the Marshall Islands, is a highly specialized and strategically vital U.S. military facility. While it has hosted orbital launches, its primary mission has always been the testing and evaluation of long-range missile systems. Its remote location and position just 9 degrees north of the equator made it an ideal site for early commercial space efforts. It was from Kwajalein that SpaceX achieved its first successful orbital launch with the Falcon 1 rocket in 2008, a historic moment for private spaceflight. The site also supported air-launched Pegasus missions that required equatorial orbits, such as the NuSTAR space telescope in 2012.
Today, the Reagan Test Site’s main function is to support the U.S. missile defense program. It serves as the terminal impact zone and data collection center for unarmed ICBMs launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. The atoll is home to an unparalleled suite of advanced, high-fidelity radars (including TRADEX, ALTAIR, and ALCOR) and optical sensors. These powerful instruments not only track missile tests but also dedicate significant time to the U.S. Space Surveillance Network, tracking orbiting satellites, space debris, and foreign launches, providing critical space domain awareness.
While the site has not hosted an orbital space launch since 2012, its future is secure. Its unique sensor capabilities and strategic location make it, in the words of the U.S. Army, an “indispensable national asset”. It will continue to play a crucial role in the research, development, and testing of America’s strategic offensive and defensive systems for the foreseeable future.
National Security & Emerging Players
Palmachim Airbase, Israel
Key Information
Location
31.9∘N,34.7∘E
Operator
Israeli Air Force
First Orbital Launch
September 19, 1988
Status
Active (Military Airbase)
Homepage
Not Available
Palmachim Airbase is Israel’s only space launch facility, a site where national security and regional geopolitics dictate all activity. Since its first orbital launch of an Ofeq reconnaissance satellite in 1988, all of Israel’s indigenous launches have followed a unique trajectory. Due to the country’s small size and its location surrounded by nations considered hostile, launches are directed westward over the Mediterranean Sea. This retrograde launch path flies against the Earth’s rotation, incurring a significant performance penalty but ensuring that the rocket’s flight path and any potential debris do not cross over neighboring territories.
Today, Palmachim is a bustling and critical Israeli Air Force (IAF) base. It is home to helicopter squadrons, multiple squadrons of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and a battery of the Arrow missile defense system. The base’s drones have been heavily involved in operations over the Gaza Strip during the Israel-Hamas war. Recent publicly reported activities at the base include rocket engine tests and extensive UAV operations, rather than orbital launches. The last confirmed orbital launch from Palmachim was in 2016.
Palmachim’s future will continue to be defined by its role as a vital national security asset for Israel. It will primarily function as a military airbase for the IAF’s aviation, drone, and missile defense units. Orbital launches of Israeli spy satellites on the Shavit rocket will likely continue on an as-needed, clandestine basis, always adhering to the politically necessary but physically inefficient westward trajectory.
Imam Khomeini Space Center, Iran
Key Information
Location
35.2∘N,54.0∘E
Operator
Iranian Space Agency
First Orbital Launch
February 2, 2009
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Imam Khomeini Space Center is the primary orbital launch facility for Iran’s ambitious space program. The site supported the country’s first successful satellite launch in 2009 using the Safir rocket, which was derived from ballistic missile technology. For years, the program struggled with its larger, follow-on rocket, the Simorgh, experiencing a string of five consecutive launch failures between 2017 and 2021.
The spaceport is currently active and has recently demonstrated a significant maturation of its capabilities. After the long period of failures, Iran achieved the first successful orbital launch of the Simorgh rocket in January 2024, placing three small satellites into orbit. This was followed by another successful Simorgh launch in December 2024, which for the first time deployed a “space tug,” the Saman-1, to place two satellites into their final orbits. The site has now hosted at least seven orbital launch attempts with the Simorgh.
The recent successes from the Imam Khomeini Space Center signal a turning point for the Iranian space program. Having seemingly overcome the technical hurdles with the Simorgh rocket, Iran is now able to more reliably place its domestically produced satellites into orbit. The program will likely continue to develop more sophisticated spacecraft and launch vehicles from this site, viewing its space capabilities as a key element of national prestige and technological power.
Sohae Satellite Launching Station, North Korea
Key Information
Location
39.7∘N,124.7∘E
Operator
National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA)
First Orbital Launch
December 12, 2012
Status
Active
Homepage
Not Available
The Sohae Satellite Launching Station on North Korea’s western coast is the country’s most advanced space launch facility and is central to its military ambitions. It achieved its first successful orbital launch in 2012 and is better positioned than the older Tonghae site for southward launches that avoid overflying Japan. After a period of diplomatic engagement during which North Korea began to dismantle parts of the site, the process was reversed following a failed summit in 2019. The facility was then rebuilt and significantly expanded.
Today, Sohae is a modern, operational, and growing complex. Site-wide modernization efforts that began in 2022 have added a second launch pad, a new assembly building, and improved road and rail infrastructure to connect the various parts of the facility. In 2023 and 2024, North Korea used the site to launch its new Chollima-1 rocket in an attempt to place a military reconnaissance satellite, the Malligyong-1, into orbit. The latest attempt, in May 2024, ended in failure.
The future of Sohae is directly tied to Kim Jong Un’s goal of acquiring a space-based military reconnaissance capability. Despite recent launch failures, the extensive and ongoing expansion of the site’s infrastructure indicates a long-term, high-priority commitment to this goal. South Korean intelligence reports have suggested that North Korea may have received technical assistance from Russia and appears to be preparing for further launch attempts. Sohae will remain a site of intense international scrutiny.
Naro Space Center, South Korea
Key Information
Location
34.4∘N,127.5∘E
Operator
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
First Orbital Launch
January 30, 2013
Status
Active
Homepage
South Korea’s Naro Space Center, located in Goheung on the country’s southern coast, is the heart of one of the world’s most rapidly advancing space programs. Opened in 2009, the center’s journey to orbit began with a partnership. After two failures, South Korea achieved its first successful satellite launch in 2013 using the Naro-1 rocket, which featured a first stage built by Russia and a South Korean upper stage. This collaboration was a crucial stepping stone, allowing Korean engineers to gain invaluable hands-on experience.
Today, the Naro Space Center is the launch site for South Korea’s fully indigenous rocket, the Nuri. After a near-success on its first flight, the Nuri rocket achieved a successful orbital launch in June 2022, followed by another successful flight in May 2023 that deployed multiple satellites. This achievement made South Korea one of only a handful of nations with the independent capability to launch a satellite weighing over one ton. The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) is now actively pursuing a broader space exploration agenda.
The future of the Naro Space Center is bright and ambitious. It is the foundation for South Korea’s goal of becoming a major space player. KARI plans to conduct repeated launches of the Nuri rocket, transferring the technology to the private sector by 2027 to foster a domestic space industry. Beyond that, the center will be the launch site for a next-generation launch vehicle currently under development, which is designed to be powerful enough to send a robotic lander to the Moon, with a target launch date of 2033.
The Next Frontier: Future and Developing Spaceports
The global network of spaceports is expanding, driven by the commercialization of space and the desire of more nations to have their own access to orbit. This new frontier is characterized by a mix of vertical launch sites aiming to capture a piece of the satellite market and facilities that are adopting a different, more diversified business model.
A notable trend among many new American facilities branded as “spaceports” is their evolution into specialized aerospace industrial parks. Their primary economic value and business case stem not from a high frequency of launches, but from their ability to attract a cluster of high-tech aerospace tenants focused on research, development, manufacturing, and testing. The Houston Spaceport is a prime example. While it has no orbital launch capability, it is a thriving hub of activity, hosting Axiom Space, which is building the world’s first commercial space station, and Intuitive Machines, which built the first successful commercial lunar lander. The economic impact comes from major NASA contracts, high-tech jobs, and construction, not launch fees. Similarly, the Midland Air and Space Port in Texas has successfully attracted a diverse tenant base that includes satellite manufacturer AST SpaceMobile, rocket engine testing firms like Firehawk and Castelion, and space surveillance company Leo Labs. These companies use Midland’s infrastructure and vast open spaces for development, even if their hardware ultimately launches from another location. This model, long-proven by the Mojave Air and Space Port in California—a world-renowned center for flight testing and R&D—is proving to be a more resilient and diversified strategy than relying solely on the hyper-competitive launch services market.
North American Development
Houston Spaceport, Texas
Licensed by the FAA for horizontal launches, the Houston Spaceport at Ellington Airport has successfully established itself as a ground-based hub for the cislunar economy. It is home to Axiom Space’s headquarters and space station manufacturing facility, as well as Intuitive Machines’ Lunar Operations Center. Its future is as a critical center for building and managing the hardware for missions to the Moon and beyond, rather than as a launch site itself.
Mojave Air and Space Port, California
The first inland spaceport licensed in the U.S., Mojave is the quintessential aerospace R&D and flight test center. Its specialized infrastructure and access to a supersonic flight corridor have made it the proving ground for historic vehicles like the privately-funded SpaceShipOne and Boom Supersonic’s XB-1 demonstrator jet. It hosts major operations for Virgin Galactic and the giant Stratolaunch air-launch platform. Mojave’s future is secure as the premier American destination for testing the next generation of innovative aerospace vehicles.
Midland Air and Space Port, Texas
The first U.S. spaceport to be co-located with a commercial passenger airport, Midland has successfully pivoted to the industrial park model. It hosts a vibrant ecosystem of tenants involved in satellite manufacturing (AST SpaceMobile), rocket engine testing (Firehawk, Castelion), and space domain awareness (LeoLabs). It has also formed a strategic partnership with the MITRE Corporation to research high-speed flight corridors, securing its future as a center for aerospace innovation.
Other FAA-Licensed Sites
- Cecil Spaceport, Florida: Licensed for horizontal launch since 2010, Cecil Spaceport is located at an airport with one of Florida’s longest runways. Despite its infrastructure and strategic location, it has yet to host a space launch, and previously announced tenants like Rocketplane went bankrupt. Its future is dependent on attracting a viable horizontal launch operator.
- Colorado Air & Space Port: This FAA-approved site near Denver is licensed for horizontal spaceplanes. Its primary aerospace tenant is not a space launch company, but Boom Supersonic, which is establishing a test site there for the Symphony engine that will power its Overture supersonic airliner.
- Oklahoma Spaceport: After early tenants went bankrupt, the Oklahoma Spaceport has recently been revitalized by an agreement with New Zealand-based Dawn Aerospace, which plans to use the site for flight operations of its suborbital and eventual orbital spaceplanes.
- Spaceport Camden, Georgia: This is a controversial proposal for a new vertical launch facility on the Georgia coast. Despite receiving a Launch Site Operator License from the FAA in December 2021, the project faces significant local opposition due to environmental concerns and potential risks to nearby Cumberland Island. Its path to hosting an actual launch remains uncertain and fraught with hurdles.
European Ambitions
SaxaVord Spaceport, Scotland
Located on the northernmost tip of the Shetland Islands, SaxaVord is on the verge of becoming the first operational vertical launch spaceport in the United Kingdom and Western Europe. It has received both a spaceport license and a range license from the UK’s Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), permitting up to 30 launches per year. The site has already signed agreements with multiple launch providers, most notably Germany’s Rocket Factory Augsburg (RFA) and the Scottish company Orbex. Despite a setback in August 2024 when an RFA rocket stage exploded during a ground test, the company received its launch license in January 2025, and the first orbital launch attempt from the UK is anticipated later in 2025.
Esrange Space Center, Sweden
Esrange has a long history as a sub-orbital sounding rocket and high-altitude balloon facility, operating since the 1960s. Now, the Swedish Space Corporation is upgrading the northern Sweden site to support orbital launches, primarily to polar orbits. In a major step forward, Esrange has signed its first orbital launch customer: U.S.-based Firefly Aerospace. Firefly plans to begin launching its Alpha rocket from Esrange in 2026, providing a key new orbital access point from continental Europe for commercial and government customers.
Global Prospects
Alcântara Launch Center, Brazil
The Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) in Brazil possesses what is arguably the world’s best location for a spaceport, situated just 2.4 degrees south of the equator. This provides a massive performance advantage for launches to geostationary orbit. Despite this, the site has been chronically underutilized, with past partnership efforts with the United States and Ukraine failing to come to fruition. Now, Brazil is making a renewed push to activate this strategic asset. It is actively courting China as a major international partner, with a Chinese technical delegation expected to visit the site to assess its potential. In a more concrete development, South Korean startup Innospace has an agreement to launch its HANBIT-Nano rocket from Alcântara, with the flight planned for the second half of 2025. The future of Alcântara hinges on Brazil’s ability to successfully execute these new international partnerships and finally capitalize on its unparalleled geography.
Echoes of the Past: Historic and Inactive Spaceports
The history of spaceflight is also told by the sites that have fallen silent. These inactive spaceports played important roles in the development of space capabilities for their respective nations and partners.
- Kapustin Yar, Russia: The Soviet Union’s very first missile test range, Kapustin Yar, was a secretive site that went on to support 84 orbital launches between 1962 and 2008. Located near the border with Kazakhstan, it was primarily used for launching small military and scientific satellites with Kosmos rockets. While it has not hosted an orbital launch in over a decade, it appears to remain in use for sub-orbital sounding rocket and ballistic missile tests.
- Luigi Broglio Space Centre, Kenya: This unique facility was an Italian-operated launch platform, named San Marco, located in Formosa Bay off the coast of Kenya. Its position just 2.9 degrees south of the equator was ideal for launching American-made Scout solid rockets into equatorial orbits. It has been inactive for orbital launch since 1988. However, the site remains a point of collaboration. In March 2025, the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the Kenya Space Agency (KSA) signed a new agreement for the center’s workers, reaffirming the partnership. The center’s current focus is on ground station support for tracking satellites, Earth observation data acquisition, and training, rather than launch.
- Woomera Test Range, Australia: This vast weapons testing range in the South Australian outback was the site from which Australia became the fourth nation to launch its own satellite in 1967. The United Kingdom also used the site for its only successful orbital launch of the Black Arrow rocket in 1971. Though inactive for orbital launch since then, the range’s huge, unpopulated land area is now being repurposed. Australian company Southern Launch is marketing the co-located Koonibba Test Range as a premier destination for the controlled re-entry and recovery of returning spacecraft, capsules, and rocket stages.
- Hammaguir Test Centre, Algeria: This was France’s first spaceport, located in French-controlled Algeria. It was from Hammaguir that France launched its first satellite, Astérix, in 1965, making it the third nation to achieve independent launch capability. The facility was abandoned in 1967 in accordance with the Évian Accords, which granted Algeria its sovereignty and required the withdrawal of French forces.
- Yasny Launch Base, Russia: Located at the Dombarovsky Air Base in southern Russia, Yasny was a former ICBM site that was repurposed to conduct commercial orbital launches of the Dnepr rocket—a converted R-36M ballistic missile. These launches ceased after 2015, largely due to the rocket’s reliance on Ukrainian-made components. Recent intelligence leaks from 2024 show that the base is currently undergoing extensive modernization and fortification, not for space launch, but to serve its primary purpose as a strategic nuclear missile base for Russia’s armed forces.
Summary
The global landscape of spaceports is undergoing its most significant transformation since the dawn of the Space Age. The era of a few state-run monopolies has given way to a dynamic and complex international marketplace, populated by a diverse mix of government, commercial, and hybrid public-private facilities. This evolution is driven by several powerful, interconnected trends.
The geopolitical imperative for sovereign launch capability remains a primary force. Nations like Russia, faced with the political complexities of leasing Baikonur, are investing billions in domestic sites like Vostochny. India is upgrading its Satish Dhawan Space Centre to support the prestigious Gaganyaan human spaceflight program, while South Korea has successfully developed its indigenous Nuri rocket to end its reliance on foreign partners. The fragmentation of old alliances, accelerated by geopolitical conflict, is reinforcing this trend, pushing nations to secure independent access to space from their own soil.
The technological revolution of reusability, pioneered by SpaceX, is fundamentally altering the nature of spaceport infrastructure. A launch site is no longer just a place to launch from, but also a place to land. The “launch, catch, repeat” tower at Starbase is the most radical example, but all modern spaceports must now consider the logistics and facilities required for recovering, inspecting, and refurbishing rocket stages, adding a new layer of complexity to ground operations.
Finally, the very definition of a “spaceport” has broadened and diversified. The proliferation of new sites is creating a more robust and resilient global launch network. This network includes not only traditional vertical launch complexes but also a new class of facility that functions more like a specialized aerospace industrial park. For these sites, the business model is not based on launch cadence but on attracting a rich ecosystem of tenants involved in the entire lifecycle of a space mission—from design and manufacturing to testing and operations. This diversification signals a maturing industry, where the gateways to orbit are becoming integrated hubs for the entire space economy, supporting humanity’s expanding presence from the ground to geostationary orbit and beyond.
