A Comprehensive Review of China’s Space Program

The Eternal Dream

China’s space program stands as one of the most significant and rapidly advancing technological enterprises of the 21st century. It is far more than a series of scientific missions; it is a core pillar of the nation’s comprehensive development strategy, a powerful symbol of its technological prowess, and a key instrument of its geopolitical ambitions. The program’s official vision, often articulated as an “eternal dream” of becoming a space power, underscores its deep political and cultural importance. In a remarkably short period, China has transitioned from a developing space presence to a top-tier power, methodically achieving a series of milestones that have captured global attention. These include the establishment of a permanently crewed orbital space station, the successful landing of a rover on Mars, and multiple robotic missions that have returned samples from the Moon, including the first ever from its far side.

The program’s long-term goal is to match or exceed the capabilities of the United States as a space leader by 2045. This ambition is not merely rhetorical; it is backed by a distinct strategic philosophy that has proven exceptionally effective. A defining characteristic of China’s approach is its reliance on methodical, multi-decade, phased planning. Major initiatives, from human spaceflight to satellite navigation and lunar exploration, have been structured as sequential “three-step strategies.” This approach involves setting ambitious, long-term goals that are achieved through incremental, pre-planned, and de-risked stages. This patient, state-directed methodology provides a level of stability and resilience against the short-term political and budgetary shifts that can affect other national space programs, granting it a formidable strategic advantage.

Every mission and technological development is viewed through the lens of bolstering what is termed “Comprehensive National Power.” Official state documents and policy papers consistently link space activities to economic construction, national security, and social progress. The ultimate objective is to strengthen China’s ability to project influence across military, economic, and diplomatic spheres. A scientific mission to the Moon, for example, is simultaneously a technology demonstrator for the military, a source of national prestige, and a diplomatic tool for building international partnerships. This article reviews the deep integration of science, industry, and statecraft.

A History of Ambition: From Humble Beginnings to Global Power

The story of China’s space program is one of perseverance, strategic adaptation, and an unyielding drive for self-reliance. Forged in the crucible of Cold War geopolitics and shaped by both cooperation and isolation, its history reveals a pattern of turning potential setbacks into foundational strengths, laying the groundwork for its current position as a leading space power.

The Early Years and Soviet Influence

The origins of China’s space ambitions are inextricably linked to its ballistic missile program. In the 1950s, facing a complex geopolitical landscape, the nation’s leadership prioritized the development of rocket technology for national defense. The formal beginning of this effort is often marked by the establishment of the No. 5 Research Institute of the Ministry of National Defense on October 8, 1956. Its first director was a scientist whose return to China would become a seminal event in the nation’s technological history: Qian Xuesen.

Initial progress was significantly accelerated through a cooperative technology exchange program with the Soviet Union. This partnership provided China with important technical knowledge, designs, and expertise. this period of collaboration was short-lived. The Sino-Soviet split in 1960 led to the abrupt withdrawal of all Soviet advisors and technical support. This moment could have been a fatal blow to the nascent program. Instead, it became a pivotal turning point, forcing China onto a path of indigenous development and instilling a deep-rooted institutional focus on self-reliance that would become a hallmark of its space program for decades to come.

The Father of Chinese Aerospace: Qian Xuesen

No single individual is more central to the history of China’s space and missile programs than Qian Xuesen. A brilliant engineer educated at MIT and Caltech, Qian was a co-founder of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and a leading rocket scientist in the United States during the 1940s. His work was instrumental to the early American rocketry program.

During the McCarthy era of the 1950s, Qian faced accusations of communist sympathies. After years of house arrest, he was allowed to return to China in 1955 in a secret deal that involved the release of American prisoners of war. His return was a monumental gain for China. Qian’s role transcended that of a mere technical expert; he became the chief architect of the entire aerospace ecosystem. He personally trained the first generation of China’s aerospace engineers, instilling in them the principles of systems engineering. He was not just a designer of specific rockets but the organizer of the vast industrial and academic complex required to build them.

His scientific authority and unquestioned political integrity were indispensable in securing the necessary institutional and financial support from the national leadership, particularly during the turbulent political struggles of the Maoist era. He successfully persuaded leaders of the importance of pursuing not just missiles, but also satellite development and, eventually, a human spaceflight program. His vision and leadership laid the intellectual and organizational foundation upon which the entire Chinese space program was built.

First Steps into Space

Working in relative isolation after the break with the Soviets, Chinese scientists and engineers made steady progress. Following early biological experiments that launched small animals on sounding rockets in 1964, the program achieved its first great triumph. On April 24, 1970, a Long March 1 rocket lifted off from the newly established Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center, carrying China’s first satellite, Dongfanghong-1 (“The East is Red 1”), into orbit.

The achievement made China the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite, a powerful statement of its technological capabilities. The satellite itself was a deliberate demonstration of ambition. Weighing 173 kg, it was heavier than the first satellites of the Soviet Union, the United States, France, and Japan combined. For 20 days, it circled the globe, broadcasting the patriotic anthem of the same name from a radio transmitter, ensuring its presence was known to the world.

During the 1970s, China also initiated its first human spaceflight ambitions under the designation “Project 714.” A spacecraft named Shuguang-1 was designed, and a selection process for astronauts even began. the project was ultimately cancelled due to a combination of economic constraints and political turmoil. This was not an end to the dream but a strategic pause. Instead of pursuing the complex goal of human spaceflight prematurely, resources were redirected toward mastering a more fundamental and prerequisite technology: controlled atmospheric reentry.

This pivot led to another important milestone. On November 26, 1975, China successfully launched and recovered its first Fanhui Shi Weixing (FSW) satellite. These recoverable capsules, used for reconnaissance and microgravity experiments, proved that China had mastered the difficult science of bringing a spacecraft safely back from orbit. This capability would be the bedrock upon which the future Shenzhou human spaceflight program would be built.

Building a Foundation for the Future

The 1980s saw a period of reform and revitalization. In March 1986, the Chinese government initiated the “863 Program,” a state-funded high-technology development plan designed to stimulate progress in key scientific areas, including space technology. This program provided the critical funding and political backing needed to lay the groundwork for more ambitious projects.

The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union created a new opportunity. In the 1990s, China signed a series of cooperation agreements with a financially struggling Russia. These agreements facilitated the purchase of Russian aerospace technologies, including key designs and systems related to the Soyuz spacecraft, life support, and orbital docking mechanisms. This technology transfer, combined with China’s own extensive experience with FSW reentry capsules, significantly accelerated the development of its own human-rated spacecraft, the Shenzhou.

This period culminated in the formal approval of the modern China Manned Space Program on September 21, 1992. Codenamed “Project 921,” it was established with the landmark three-step strategy that would guide its efforts for the next thirty years: send an astronaut into orbit and return them safely; master advanced techniques like extravehicular activity and orbital docking; and assemble and operate a permanent, multi-module space station. This clear, long-term vision, established at the program’s outset, set the stage for the methodical and successful execution of China’s human spaceflight ambitions.

National Space Strategy and Geopolitical Context

China’s space program is not an isolated scientific pursuit but a deeply integrated component of its national strategy. It is a multi-faceted instrument of statecraft, designed to advance the nation’s economic, military, and diplomatic objectives on a global scale. The program’s principles, goals, and execution are best understood within this broader geopolitical framework, where every launch and every new capability contributes to the nation’s “Comprehensive National Power.”

Core Principles and White Papers

The Chinese government periodically releases official white papers on its space activities, which articulate the program’s guiding principles. These documents consistently frame the space industry as a critical element that serves the overall national strategy. The core tenets are innovation-driven development, coordination and efficiency, peaceful purposes, and international cooperation.

The principle of “peaceful use” is a cornerstone of China’s public messaging. Official policy statements consistently advocate for the peaceful exploration of outer space and oppose its weaponization or the initiation of an arms race. This narrative is central to its diplomatic outreach and its efforts to position itself as a responsible global actor.

At the same time, the strategy is built upon a foundation of “independence, self-reliance, and self-renovation.” This principle, born from the necessity imposed by the Sino-Soviet split, remains a driving force. It dictates that China must master all key space technologies indigenously. This focus on self-reliance is balanced with a policy of actively promoting international exchanges and cooperation, but always on the basis of mutual benefit and reciprocity, ensuring that such partnerships serve China’s strategic interests.

Space as an Element of National Power

Beyond the official rhetoric of peaceful exploration, the space program is explicitly designed to meet the demands of economic construction, national security, and technological development. Its ultimate objective is to bolster China’s comprehensive national power and enhance its global standing.

Economically, the program is a driver of high-tech industrial development, leading to advancements in materials science, electronics, and manufacturing that have applications across the broader economy. The “Space Silk Road” is the celestial dimension of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Through this initiative, China uses its space assets, most notably the BeiDou navigation system, to provide services to partner nations. It has built and launched communications and Earth observation satellites for numerous countries, including Nigeria, Pakistan, Venezuela, and Bolivia. These projects not only generate revenue but also create technological dependencies and expand China’s sphere of influence.

Militarily, the program operates under a clear strategy of “military-civil fusion.” Technological breakthroughs in civilian programs are seamlessly applied to defense systems, and vice versa. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Strategic Support Force, which integrates space, cyber, and electronic warfare units, underscores the military’s view of space as a critical operational domain. Many satellite systems, such as the high-resolution Gaofen Earth observation satellites, are considered dual-use, providing valuable data for both civilian applications like disaster monitoring and military applications like intelligence gathering.

The Modern Space Race

China’s rapid rise has inevitably placed it in direct competition with the United States, leading to what many describe as a new space race. Unlike the Cold War race, which was primarily driven by ideological prestige, this modern competition is centered on strategic, economic, and military advantage. China has an explicitly stated goal to match or exceed the United States as a space leader by 2045.

This competition is playing out across several key domains. China is building its own national broadband megaconstellation, known as Guowang, as a direct state-backed competitor to commercial systems like SpaceX’s Starlink. It is aggressively developing reusable launch vehicles to challenge the cost advantages established by American commercial companies. It is also advancing sophisticated on-orbit servicing and debris removal technologies, which have clear dual-use implications for both space sustainability and counter-space capabilities.

This dynamic is most visible in the development of major orbital and lunar infrastructure. China’s Tiangong space station was built after it was effectively excluded from the International Space Station (ISS) by U.S. law due to the PLA’s involvement in its space program. Tiangong now stands as the only other operational space station in orbit. Similarly, China’s plan to build an International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) with Russia and other partners is positioned as a direct alternative to the U.S.-led Artemis Accords for lunar exploration.

This competitive framework has also shaped China’s approach to international partnerships. The strategy of “cooperation and sharing” is a highly effective form of soft power diplomacy. By offering launch services, satellite data, and access to its space station and future lunar base to a wide range of countries—particularly those in the developing world—China is building a global coalition of space partners. This creates a powerful network of diplomatic and technological relationships, establishing an alternative international space ecosystem with China at its center and directly challenging the long-standing, U.S.-led international order in space.

The Organizational Framework: Who Runs the Program

The structure of China’s space program is a complex and deeply integrated network of government agencies, military departments, and sprawling state-owned enterprises. This framework is designed to ensure tight central control, align all activities with national strategic goals, and seamlessly blend civilian and military objectives under the overarching policy of military-civil fusion. Understanding this division of labor is essential to grasping how the program operates with such methodical efficiency.

Governing Bodies and State-Owned Enterprises

On the surface, China’s space activities are managed by several distinct organizations, each with a specific mandate.

The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the public face of the country’s space efforts. Established in 1993, it is the government agency responsible for managing civil space programs, formulating national space policy, and conducting international cooperation. The CNSA oversees major robotic exploration initiatives like the Chang’e lunar program and the Tianwen planetary program. its role is primarily administrative and diplomatic; it does not directly manage the human spaceflight program and contracts out the actual design and manufacturing of its hardware to state-owned corporations.

The China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) operates entirely separately from the CNSA. It is a military organization functioning under the Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission, the PLA’s highest command body. The CMSA is solely responsible for the China Manned Space Program, also known as Project 921. This includes the development and operation of the Shenzhou crewed spacecraft, the Tiangong space station, and the selection and training of the taikonaut corps.

The industrial muscle behind the entire program is the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC). CASC is the primary state-owned enterprise (SOE) and main contractor for virtually every aspect of the space program. It is a massive industrial conglomerate responsible for the research, design, development, and manufacturing of nearly all of China’s space hardware. Its portfolio includes the entire Long March family of rockets, the Shenzhou spacecraft, the Tiangong space station modules, most satellite systems, and China’s strategic and tactical missile systems.

A sibling SOE, the China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC), was split from CASC in 1999. While CASIC’s primary focus is on missile systems, particularly air defense and cruise missiles, it also has a significant role in the space sector. Its subsidiary, ExPace, produces the Kuaizhou series of solid-fuel rockets, which are marketed for commercial launch services.

Finally, the military’s operational arm in space is the People’s Liberation Army Strategic Support Force (PLASSF). This branch, established in 2015, integrates the PLA’s space, cyberspace, and electronic warfare capabilities. It directs the astronaut corps (which is part of the military), operates the Chinese Deep Space Network for tracking and communication, and controls military satellite operations.

CASC’s Industrial Might

The immense capability of CASC is rooted in its organizational structure, which is built around a series of powerful research and production complexes known as “academies.” These are not academic institutions in the Western sense but vast, vertically integrated industrial centers, each specializing in a specific technological domain.

The most prominent of these is the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT), also known as the 1st Academy. Based in Beijing, CALT is the primary designer and manufacturer of the Long March family of rockets. The China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), or the 5th Academy, is its counterpart for spacecraft. CAST is responsible for developing and building a vast array of satellites, the Shenzhou spacecraft, and the Tiangong space station modules.

Other important academies within the CASC ecosystem include the Academy of Aerospace Liquid Propulsion Technology (AALPT), which develops the liquid-fuel engines for the Long March rockets, and the Academy of Aerospace Solid Propulsion Technology (AASPT), which focuses on solid rocket motors. This structure allows CASC to control nearly every aspect of the supply chain, from raw materials and basic components to the final assembly and testing of complex space systems.

This organizational framework is a deliberately crafted system of “managed competition” and military-civil fusion. The 1999 split of the original aerospace corporation into CASC and CASIC was intended to foster a degree of internal competition, though both remain effective monopolies in their core areas. The distinction between the “civilian” CNSA and the “military” CMSA is also more administrative than practical. Both agencies serve the state’s strategic goals, and the hardware for both is built by the same state-owned contractor, CASC, which is simultaneously a primary defense contractor. This structure perfectly embodies the military-civil fusion strategy, enabling seamless technology transfer between defense and civil projects and ensuring the entire space ecosystem is aligned with national objectives, all while presenting a civilian face to the world for international engagement.

Key Organizations in China’s Space Program

The following table provides a concise summary of the primary organizations involved in China’s space program and their respective roles.

The Long March: China’s Launch Vehicle Programs

Reliable and independent access to space is the foundation of any major space power, and for China, this capability is provided by the Long March rocket family. Named after the historic military retreat of the Chinese Red Army, the Long March series has evolved from early designs based on ballistic missiles into a diverse and modern fleet of launch vehicles. Operated by the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), these rockets are the workhorses that have carried every Chinese satellite, deep space probe, and taikonaut into orbit.

The Legacy Fleet: Long March 1, 2, 3, & 4

The first generation of Chinese launch vehicles was developed directly from military missile technology. These rockets established China’s initial launch capabilities and served the program for decades.

The Long March 1 was a three-stage rocket based on the Dong Feng 3 intermediate-range ballistic missile. Though it flew only twice, its historic first launch on April 24, 1970, successfully placed China’s first satellite, Dongfanghong-1, into orbit.

The Long March 2, 3, and 4 families formed the backbone of the program for over thirty years. These vehicles were derived from the more powerful Dong Feng 5 intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). They primarily used toxic, hypergolic propellants—nitrogen tetroxide (N2​O4​) as the oxidizer and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as the fuel. These propellants have the advantage of being storable at room temperature, making them suitable for military missiles that need to be ready for launch on short notice, but they are highly corrosive and dangerous to handle.

Several key variants defined this era:

• The Long March 2F is the human-rated version of the family. Developed from the Long March 2E, it features extensive modifications to improve reliability and safety, including system redundancies and a launch escape system to pull the crew capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. It is the exclusive launcher for all crewed Shenzhou missions.
• The Long March 3 series introduced a significant technological leap with the addition of a high-performance third stage powered by cryogenic propellants: liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid hydrogen (LH2​). This made the Long March 3 family highly efficient for launching satellites into high-energy orbits, particularly the Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) required for most communications satellites. The Long March 3B/E is a powerful variant with four liquid-fueled strap-on boosters and remains a workhorse for launching communications and BeiDou navigation satellites.
• The Long March 4 series provided a reliable capability for launching satellites into polar and Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO), which are ideal for Earth observation and meteorological missions.

The New Generation: Long March 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, & 12

To support its expanding ambitions, including the construction of a large space station and missions to the Moon and Mars, China developed a new generation of launch vehicles. This modern fleet is characterized by its modular design, increased payload capacity, and a significant shift away from toxic hypergolic propellants in its main stages. The new rockets primarily use cleaner and more efficient liquid oxygen and kerosene (RP-1) or liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.

• Long March 5: This is China’s heavy-lift rocket and the cornerstone of its modern space aspirations. With a 5-meter diameter core stage, it is too large to be transported by rail to China’s inland launch sites. Its development was intrinsically linked to the construction of the coastal Wenchang Space Launch Site, where its components could be delivered by sea. The Long March 5 is essential for launching the heavy modules of the Tiangong space station and large deep space probes. Its standard variant can lift approximately 14 tonnes to GTO, while the Long March 5B variant, which has a single core stage and four boosters, is designed to launch payloads of up to 25 tonnes into Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
• Long March 7: This is a medium-lift vehicle designed to be the future workhorse of the fleet, eventually replacing older Long March 2, 3, and 4 variants. It uses LOX/kerosene engines and serves as the primary launcher for the Tianzhou cargo spacecraft that resupply the Tiangong space station.
• Long March 6: This is a small-lift rocket designed for the rapidly growing market of small satellite constellations. It provides a flexible and cost-effective option for launching payloads, particularly into Sun-synchronous orbits.
• Long March 8: A medium-lift rocket aimed at the commercial launch market, the Long March 8 is notable for being designed with reusability in mind. Its first stage is equipped with grid fins and landing legs, with the goal of performing vertical landings similar to those of SpaceX’s Falcon 9.
• Long March 11: Providing a different kind of flexibility, the Long March 11 is a four-stage, solid-fuel rocket. Its primary advantage is its ability to be launched on short notice from a mobile, road-based Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL) or from a converted barge at sea. This provides a quick-response capability for deploying satellites.
• Long March 12: This is a new medium-lift rocket that had its maiden flight in 2024. It is designed to carry payloads of at least 10 tonnes to LEO and 6 tonnes to SSO, filling a gap in China’s launch capabilities and targeting the growing commercial satellite market.

The development of the Wenchang launch site and the Long March 5 rocket was a critical, symbiotic pairing that unlocked China’s modern space ambitions. The older, inland launch sites could not handle the logistics of the Long March 5’s large 5-meter diameter core stage. The development of the coastal Wenchang site was essential, allowing these large components to be delivered by sea. In turn, the heavy-lift capability of the Long March 5 was the prerequisite for launching the 22-tonne modules of the Tiangong space station and the heavy probes needed for lunar sample return and Mars exploration. Without either one of these two elements—the heavy rocket or the coastal launch site—China’s current high-profile missions would not have been possible. This demonstrates a highly integrated and forward-thinking approach to infrastructure and hardware development.

The Long March Rocket Family: Variants and Specifications

The following table summarizes the key characteristics and capabilities of the primary variants in the Long March rocket family, illustrating the evolution from its early designs to the modern, powerful fleet of today.

Eyes in the Sky: China’s Satellite Constellations

Beyond its launch capabilities and human spaceflight program, China has invested heavily in developing a comprehensive and independent space-based infrastructure. This includes constellations of satellites for navigation, Earth observation, communication, and meteorology. These systems are designed not as standalone projects but as integrated “systems-of-systems,” creating a multi-layered information network that serves China’s civil, commercial, and military needs simultaneously.

BeiDou: A Global Navigation System

The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is perhaps the most strategically significant of China’s satellite programs. It provides China with an independent global positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) service, ending its reliance on the U.S.-owned Global Positioning System (GPS). The development of BeiDou was a textbook example of China’s methodical, three-step strategic approach.

The program began in 1994, and the first phase, BDS-1, became operational in 2000. It was an experimental system consisting of three geostationary satellites that provided positioning services limited to China. This achievement made China only the third country in the world with its own satellite navigation system.

The second phase, BDS-2, was completed in 2012. It expanded the constellation and extended service coverage to the entire Asia-Pacific region.

The third and final phase, BDS-3, was completed in 2020 with the launch of the final satellites, establishing a full global constellation. The BDS-3 system features a unique hybrid architecture, combining satellites in three different orbits: Geostationary Orbit (GEO), Inclined Geosynchronous Orbit (IGSO), and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). This innovative design enhances coverage and accuracy, particularly over the Asia-Pacific region, compared to systems that rely solely on MEO satellites like GPS. Beyond standard PNT services, BeiDou offers unique capabilities, including a short-message communication service that allows users to send brief texts via the satellites, and a high-precision encrypted service for authorized military and government users.

Gaofen: The High-Resolution Earth Observatory

The China High-resolution Earth Observation System (CHEOS), known by its satellite series name Gaofen(“high resolution”), is a comprehensive network of satellites providing detailed imagery of the Earth. Officially a civilian program initiated in 2010, Gaofen is designed for applications such as agricultural monitoring, disaster management, resource surveying, and environmental protection.

The Gaofen constellation is diverse, with different satellites optimized for specific tasks:

• Gaofen-1 and Gaofen-2 are optical imaging satellites, with Gaofen-2 capable of providing images with sub-meter resolution.
• Gaofen-3 is a C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite. Its radar imaging capability allows it to see through clouds and at night, providing all-weather, day-and-night observation.
• Gaofen-4 and Gaofen-13 are geostationary satellites. Positioned over a fixed point on the equator, they provide continuous, persistent monitoring of a large area, which is particularly useful for tracking fast-developing events like typhoons or forest fires.
• Gaofen-5 is a highly specialized atmospheric monitoring satellite equipped with hyperspectral and polarimetric cameras to analyze the composition of the atmosphere in great detail.

While the Gaofen system serves critical civilian functions and has reduced China’s dependence on foreign satellite data, its high-resolution capabilities make it inherently dual-use. The lack of public detail on the later satellites in the series suggests that they likely serve military reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering roles as well.

Communications and Connectivity

China has built a robust and independent satellite communications infrastructure to support everything from television broadcasting to high-speed data relay for its space missions.

• The ChinaSat (Zhongxing) series is a long-running family of geostationary communications satellites. Operated by the state-owned China Satcom, these satellites provide television and radio broadcasting, broadband internet services, and secure communication channels for government and commercial users across Asia and beyond.
• The Tianlian (“sky link”) series is China’s network of data relay satellites, analogous to the U.S. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRS). Positioned in geostationary orbit, these satellites provide a continuous communication link between ground control and spacecraft in low Earth orbit, such as the Tiangong space station and Shenzhou missions. They are essential for transmitting large volumes of data and maintaining contact when a spacecraft is not within direct line of sight of a ground station in China.
• Guowang is the name of China’s ambitious state-led project to build a low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellite internet megaconstellation. With plans for nearly 13,000 satellites, Guowang is a direct strategic response to the rise of commercial systems like SpaceX’s Starlink and Amazon’s Project Kuiper. The constellation is designed to provide global broadband internet services and will have significant dual-use applications for the military.

Other Key Satellite Programs

In addition to these major constellations, China operates several other important satellite series:

• The Fengyun (“wind cloud”) series are meteorological satellites. The system includes satellites in both geostationary orbit for continuous weather monitoring and polar orbits for global coverage, providing essential data for weather forecasting and climate research.
• The Shijian (“practice”) series is a family of experimental satellites. These are used as platforms to test and validate new technologies in the space environment before they are incorporated into operational missions.
• Mozi, launched in 2016, was the world’s first quantum communications satellite. It has been used to conduct groundbreaking experiments in quantum key distribution, demonstrating the potential for ultra-secure communication networks based on the principles of quantum physics.

The Human Element: Project 921 and the Taikonaut Corps

The centerpiece of China’s space program in the public imagination is its human spaceflight endeavor. Known officially as the China Manned Space Program and by its internal designation, Project 921, this effort has been executed with the same methodical, step-by-step precision that characterizes the nation’s broader space strategy. In less than two decades, it progressed from its first solo flight to the assembly of a permanently crewed, multi-module space station, making China only the third nation in history to achieve independent human spaceflight.

The Shenzhou Spacecraft

The vehicle that carries China’s astronauts, or “taikonauts,” into orbit is the Shenzhou spacecraft (“divine vessel”). Its design was heavily influenced by Russia’s venerable Soyuz spacecraft, a result of technology transfer agreements in the 1990s. the Shenzhou is not a direct copy; it is a larger, modernized, and indigenously built vehicle tailored to China’s specific requirements.

Like the Soyuz, the Shenzhou consists of three distinct modules:

• The Reentry Module, located in the center, is the command hub of the spacecraft and the only part that returns to Earth. Its bell-shaped design is a compromise between maximizing habitable volume and providing aerodynamic control during the fiery descent through the atmosphere.
• The Orbital Module, at the front of the spacecraft, provides additional living and working space for the crew while in orbit. It houses scientific experiments, life support equipment, and sleeping quarters. A key feature that distinguishes it from the Soyuz is its ability to function independently. Equipped with its own solar panels and propulsion system, the orbital module can be left in orbit after the crew departs, continuing to operate as an uncrewed scientific satellite for several months.
• The Service Module, at the rear, is the powerhouse of the spacecraft. It contains the main propulsion system for orbital maneuvers, attitude control thrusters, and two large, wing-like solar arrays that provide electrical power to the entire vehicle.

The Taikonauts: Selection and Training

The human face of Project 921 is the People’s Liberation Army Astronaut Corps (PLAAC). The term “taikonaut” is derived from the Mandarin word for space, tàikōng. The corps was formally established in 1998, with its members selected and trained through a process renowned for its rigor.

The selection of taikonauts has occurred in distinct batches, with the criteria evolving as the program’s needs have changed:

• Batch 1 (1998): The inaugural class consisted of 14 men, all elite fighter pilots from the PLA Air Force. This focus on pilots was typical for the early stages of a human spaceflight program, prioritizing individuals with experience in high-stress, high-performance environments.
• Batch 2 (2010): The second group included seven more pilots, five men and two women. This batch produced China’s first female taikonauts, Liu Yang and Wang Yaping.
• Batch 3 (2020): This selection marked a significant strategic shift. For the first time, the pool of candidates was expanded beyond military pilots. The 18 individuals chosen included seven pilots, seven flight engineers (recruited from technical and engineering backgrounds), and four payload specialists (scientists and researchers). This diversification was a necessary step to support the complex scientific operations planned for the Tiangong space station.
• Batch 4 (2024): This latest batch continued the trend of diversification, selecting ten candidates. Notably, it included the first payload specialists from the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao, signaling a new phase of national integration and outreach for the program.

All taikonauts undergo years of intensive training at the Astronaut Center of China (ACC) in Beijing. The curriculum is exhaustive, covering academic subjects like space science and engineering, as well as grueling physical and psychological conditioning. Training includes runs in a high-G centrifuge to simulate launch accelerations, practice for spacewalks in a large neutral buoyancy pool, and survival training in harsh environments like deserts and oceans to prepare for off-nominal landings.

Missions to Orbit: A Step-by-Step Journey

The crewed Shenzhou missions have unfolded as a masterclass in incremental progress, with each flight building upon the capabilities demonstrated by the last, methodically completing the goals of Project 921’s three-step strategy.

• Step One: Sending a Human to Space. After four uncrewed test flights, Shenzhou 5 launched on October 15, 2003, carrying Yang Liwei on a 21-hour solo flight. This historic mission made China the third nation to independently send a human into space. Shenzhou 6 followed in 2005 with a two-person crew, Fei Junlong and Nie Haisheng, on a five-day mission, demonstrating multi-person, multi-day flight capabilities.
• Step Two: Mastering Advanced Techniques. Shenzhou 7 in 2008 carried a three-person crew and featured China’s first extravehicular activity (EVA), or spacewalk, performed by Zhai Zhigang. The next major objective was rendezvous and docking. This was first tested with the Tiangong-1 precursor space lab. Shenzhou 9, in 2012, carried the first crew to dock with Tiangong-1, a crew that included Liu Yang, China’s first woman in space. Shenzhou 10 followed in 2013. The second precursor lab, Tiangong-2, was visited by the Shenzhou 11 crew in 2016 for a 33-day mission, setting a new Chinese spaceflight duration record and testing regenerative life support systems.
• Step Three: Building a Permanent Space Station. With the launch of the Tianhe core module in 2021, the final phase began. Shenzhou 12 carried the first crew to the new Tiangong station. Shenzhou 13 followed, becoming the first mission to last the standard six-month duration and featuring the first EVA by a female taikonaut, Wang Yaping. The Shenzhou 14 crew was in orbit to receive and install the station’s two science modules, Wentian and Mengtian. In late 2022, the Shenzhou 15 crew arrived at the fully assembled station and conducted the first-ever in-orbit crew handover with their Shenzhou 14 colleagues. Subsequent missions, beginning with Shenzhou 16 in 2023—which included China’s first civilian taikonaut, payload specialist Gui Haichao—have established a continuous, rotating human presence in low Earth orbit.

China’s Crewed Spaceflight Missions: The Shenzhou Program

The following table details the progression of China’s crewed missions, highlighting the key milestones achieved in each flight.

Tiangong: China’s Orbital Outpost

The Tiangong space station (“Heavenly Palace”) is the crowning achievement of China’s human spaceflight program and the culmination of its three-step strategy conceived three decades earlier. As a permanently crewed, multi-module national laboratory in low Earth orbit, it represents China’s arrival as a top-tier space power, capable of sustaining a long-term human presence in space. The station’s development followed a deliberate, phased approach, using precursor laboratories to test and de-risk the technologies required for the final, complex outpost.

The Pathfinders: Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2

Before committing to a large, modular station, China launched two smaller, single-module space laboratories. These pathfinder missions were essential for testing the key capabilities of rendezvous, docking, life support, and cargo resupply. This incremental strategy ensured that by the time the final, expensive components of the permanent station were launched, the core technologies had already been thoroughly proven in orbit, maximizing the probability of success.

Tiangong-1, launched in September 2011, was an 8.5-tonne “target vehicle.” Its primary purpose was to serve as a destination for docking practice. It was visited by the uncrewed Shenzhou 8, which performed the first automated docking in China’s history, and later by the crewed missions Shenzhou 9 and Shenzhou 10. After an extended service life, it made an uncontrolled but monitored reentry into Earth’s atmosphere in April 2018.

Tiangong-2, launched in September 2016, was described as China’s first “true space lab.” It was equipped with more advanced life support systems and was used to test in-orbit refueling with the Tianzhou-1 cargo spacecraft, a critical capability for maintaining a long-term station. The Shenzhou 11 crew lived and worked aboard Tiangong-2 for 33 days, conducting a range of scientific experiments. In July 2019, Tiangong-2 was deorbited in a controlled manner over the South Pacific Ocean.

Constructing a Celestial Palace: The Modular Station

The modern Tiangong space station is a large, T-shaped structure with a mass of nearly 100 metric tons. Its construction was a remarkably rapid and efficient feat of space engineering, completed in just 20 months through a sequence of 11 launches.

The assembly process began on April 29, 2021, with the launch of the station’s central and most important component, the Tianhe core module, aboard a Long March 5B rocket. This was followed by the first crewed mission, Shenzhou 12, and the first cargo resupply flight, Tianzhou 2.

The station’s expansion took place in 2022. The first science laboratory, the Wentian module, was launched in July and docked with Tianhe’s forward port. A few months later, it was robotically repositioned to its permanent home on the starboard side of the core module’s docking hub. The final major component, the Mengtianscience laboratory, was launched in October 2022. It followed a similar procedure, docking first to the forward port before being moved to its permanent port-side location in early November. With the successful integration of Mengtian, the basic T-shaped configuration of the Tiangong space station was complete, and China declared its orbital outpost fully operational.

Station Modules and Capabilities

The Tiangong space station is comprised of three primary modules, each with specialized functions for living, working, and conducting science.

• Tianhe (“Harmony of the Heavens”): This 16.6-meter-long core module is the heart of the station. It serves as the primary control center and provides the main living quarters for a crew of three taikonauts, including sleeping berths, a galley, and sanitation facilities. Its spherical docking hub allows for the attachment of the two science modules and visiting Shenzhou and Tianzhou spacecraft. Tianhe is also equipped with the station’s large, 10-meter-long robotic arm, which played a key role in construction and is used for external maintenance and experiments.
• Wentian (“Quest for the Heavens”): This 17.9-meter-long module is the first of the two laboratory cabins. Its primary focus is on life sciences and biotechnology research, and it is outfitted with numerous experiment racks. Wentian also provides backup capabilities for the station’s control and life support functions and contains three additional sleeping berths, expanding the station’s capacity to accommodate up to six crew members during handovers. Crucially, it features a dedicated, larger airlock that has become the primary exit point for taikonauts conducting spacewalks.
• Mengtian (“Dreaming of the Heavens”): The second laboratory module, also 17.9 meters long, is dedicated to microgravity research. Its experiment racks are designed for studies in fluid physics, materials science, and combustion. Mengtian’s most unique feature is a specialized cargo airlock. This system allows experiments and small satellites to be transferred from the pressurized interior of the station to the vacuum of space using the robotic arm, without requiring a human spacewalk.

Life and Science in Orbit

Tiangong is designed to function as a world-class national laboratory in space for at least a decade. It is equipped to host over 1,000 scientific experiments, utilizing its 23 internal, standardized experiment racks and numerous external mounting points. The research conducted aboard covers a broad spectrum of fields. In space life sciences, taikonauts have successfully cultivated rice from seed to maturity and conducted studies on human stem cells. In materials science, the microgravity environment is used to create novel alloys that cannot be produced on Earth. The station also hosts fundamental physics experiments, such as a high-precision cold atom clock.

Beyond its scientific mission, Tiangong serves as a powerful platform for national outreach and education. Taikonauts regularly conduct live-streamed “space lectures” for millions of schoolchildren across China, performing simple physics experiments to demonstrate principles like surface tension in microgravity and answering students’ questions from orbit. This initiative is designed to inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers and to foster public support for the space program.

Tiangong Space Station Modules

The table below outlines the key specifications and functions of the three main modules that form the Tiangong space station.

Robotic Exploration of the Cosmos

While its human spaceflight program often captures the headlines, China’s robotic exploration of the solar system has been equally, if not more, ambitious and successful. Through two flagship programs—Chang’e for the Moon and Tianwen for interplanetary targets—China has systematically expanded its reach, achieving a series of remarkable scientific and engineering feats, including several world firsts.

The Chang’e Lunar Exploration Program

Named after the Chinese goddess of the Moon, the Chang’e program is a multi-phased, robotic endeavor to explore and study Earth’s natural satellite. Like other major Chinese space initiatives, it has progressed through a series of carefully planned stages, with each phase building on the technological successes of the last.

• Phase 1: Orbiting the Moon. This initial phase focused on reaching and mapping the Moon from orbit. Chang’e 1, launched in 2007, was China’s first spacecraft to travel beyond Earth orbit. It successfully entered lunar orbit and created the most detailed three-dimensional map of the lunar surface at the time. Chang’e 2, launched in 2010, served as a higher-resolution reconnaissance orbiter, scouting potential landing sites for future missions before embarking on an extended mission to an asteroid.
• Phase 2: Landing and Roving. The second phase demonstrated the capability to soft-land on the lunar surface. In December 2013, Chang’e 3 touched down in the Mare Imbrium region, making China the third country to successfully land a spacecraft on the Moon. It deployed the Yutu (“Jade Rabbit”) rover, the first lunar rover to operate since the Soviet Union’s Lunokhod 2 in 1973. Building on this success, Chang’e 4 achieved a monumental world first in January 2019 by performing the first-ever soft landing on the far side of the Moon. Because the far side never faces Earth, the mission required a dedicated relay satellite, Queqiao (“Magpie Bridge”), positioned in a special orbit beyond the Moon to maintain communication. The Chang’e 4 lander deployed the Yutu-2 rover, which continues to explore the Von Kármán crater to this day, providing unprecedented insights into the geology of this unexplored region.
• Phase 3: Sample Return. The third phase was designed to master the complex task of collecting lunar material and returning it to Earth. In November 2020, the Chang’e 5 mission launched, landing in the Oceanus Procellarum region. Its lander drilled into the surface and used a robotic arm to scoop up soil and rocks. It then launched a small ascent vehicle back into lunar orbit, which rendezvoused and docked with the orbiter before transferring the sample container for the journey home. The mission successfully returned 1,731 grams of lunar material, the first to be brought back to Earth in over 40 years. The samples were found to be much younger than those collected by the Apollo and Luna missions, providing new clues about the Moon’s volcanic history. In June 2024, Chang’e 6 repeated this incredible feat, but this time from the South Pole-Aitken Basin on the far side of the Moon, marking another historic first.
• Phase 4: Robotic Research Station. The program’s current and future phase is focused on laying the groundwork for a permanent robotic, and eventually human, presence on the Moon. The upcoming Chang’e 7 mission, planned for around 2026, will be a complex, multi-spacecraft mission to survey the resources of the lunar south pole, a region believed to contain water ice in permanently shadowed craters. Chang’e 8, planned for around 2028, will follow up by testing key technologies for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), such as 3D printing structures using lunar soil. These missions are direct precursors to the establishment of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS).

The Tianwen Interplanetary Program

Building on the successes of the lunar program, China formally initiated its interplanetary exploration program, named Tianwen (“Questions to Heaven”) after an ancient poem.

The program’s inaugural mission, Tianwen-1, was exceptionally ambitious. Launched in July 2020, it was China’s first independent mission to Mars and combined an orbiter, a lander, and a rover in a single flight—a feat no other nation had attempted on its first try. The spacecraft successfully entered Mars orbit in February 2021. After several months of mapping the target landing site, the lander separated from the orbiter and successfully touched down in the Utopia Planitia region in May 2021. This made China only the second country to successfully land and operate a rover on the Martian surface.

The rover, named Zhurong after a Chinese god of fire, was equipped with a suite of scientific instruments, including a ground-penetrating radar to study the subsurface geology and search for signs of buried water ice. Zhurong operated for just over a year before entering a planned hibernation for the harsh Martian winter in May 2022. It did not wake up as expected, likely due to an accumulation of dust on its solar panels, but the mission was still considered a resounding success, having achieved all its primary objectives. The Tianwen-1 orbiter continues to circle Mars, relaying data and conducting its own scientific survey of the planet.

Future missions in the Tianwen program are already in development. Tianwen-2 is planned for launch around 2025; it will be a complex sample-return mission to a near-Earth asteroid. Tianwen-3 will be China’s Mars sample-return mission, with a target launch date around 2030. Tianwen-4 is planned to be a mission to the Jupiter system.

Ground Infrastructure: The Foundation of Space Operations

A successful space program relies on a vast and sophisticated network of ground-based infrastructure for launching, tracking, and communicating with its assets in orbit and beyond. China has invested heavily in building a world-class network of launch centers and a global telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) system that gives it autonomous control over its extensive space operations.

Launch Sites

China operates four primary space launch centers, each strategically located to support different types of missions and orbital inclinations.

• Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC): Located in the Gobi Desert in Inner Mongolia, Jiuquan is China’s oldest and largest spaceport, established in 1958. It is situated at a latitude of about 41 degrees North. Due to its inland location and high inclination, it is primarily used for launching satellites into low and medium Earth orbits with large inclination angles, as well as for recoverable satellite missions. Most significantly, Jiuquan is the exclusive launch site for all of China’s crewed Shenzhou missions. Its dry, arid climate provides favorable weather conditions for launches year-round.
• Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (TSLC): Situated in Shanxi province, Taiyuan was established in 1968. Located at a higher altitude and surrounded by mountains, it is the ideal site for launching satellites into polar and Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO). These orbits are primarily used for meteorological, reconnaissance, and Earth observation satellites like the Gaofen series, which need to pass over the entire globe.
• Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XSLC): Located in a mountainous region of Sichuan province, Xichang became operational in 1984. Its more southerly latitude (about 28 degrees North) makes it more efficient for launching satellites into geostationary orbit, as less energy is required to change the rocket’s orbital plane to match the equator. For decades, it was the primary site for launching China’s communications and BeiDou navigation satellites. its inland location has raised safety concerns due to rocket stages falling over populated areas.
• Wenchang Space Launch Site (WSLC): Located on the coast of Hainan Island, Wenchang is China’s newest and most advanced spaceport, becoming operational in 2016. Its location at 19 degrees North latitude is the closest of any Chinese launch site to the equator, providing a significant performance boost from Earth’s rotation. This makes it the most efficient site for launching heavy payloads to geostationary orbit and for interplanetary missions. Its coastal location also allows for the safe dropping of spent rocket stages into the sea and enables the transport of large rocket components, like the 5-meter-diameter core stage of the Long March 5, by sea. Wenchang is the exclusive launch site for China’s heavy-lift rockets and is the designated launch center for the Tiangong space station modules, Tianzhou cargo missions, and future crewed lunar missions.

In addition to these fixed sites, China has developed a sea-launch capability, using converted barges as mobile platforms, primarily for the solid-fuel Long March 11 rocket. This provides greater flexibility in launch location and trajectory.

Tracking and Control Network

To maintain communication with its growing fleet of spacecraft, China has built a comprehensive telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) network that spans the globe. This network is essential for sending commands to satellites, receiving health and status telemetry, and precisely tracking their orbits.

The network is composed of three main elements:

• Domestic Ground Stations: A series of large ground stations are located within China, including major facilities in Kashgar, Jiamusi, and Qingdao. These form the core of the TT&C network for missions in low Earth orbit. The Chinese Meridian Project has also established a vast network of nearly 300 instruments across the country to monitor the space environment.
• Overseas Ground Stations: To provide global coverage, China has established a network of ground stations in other countries through international agreements. It has or has had access to facilities in locations across Latin America, Africa, and South Asia, allowing it to track its spacecraft as they orbit the globe.
• Yuan Wang Tracking Ships: To fill gaps in coverage over the vast Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, China operates a fleet of specialized TT&C ships known as the Yuan Wang (“Far Sight”) class. These large vessels are equipped with multiple large parabolic antennas and sophisticated tracking equipment, effectively acting as mobile ground stations. They are deployed globally to support critical mission phases like rocket launches, orbital insertions, and spacecraft reentry. The Yuan Wang fleet is a important component of the TT&C network for human spaceflight and deep space missions.

For missions beyond Earth orbit, these assets are integrated into the Chinese Deep Space Network (CDSN). This network uses very large antennas, including a 66-meter dish in Jiamusi and a 35-meter antenna at a station in Argentina, to communicate with probes at the Moon and Mars. This global network gives China the independent capability to command and control its most ambitious exploration missions.

The Rise of Commercial Space

For decades, China’s space program was the exclusive domain of the state. in 2014, the Chinese government made a landmark policy decision, outlined in “Document 60,” to open the space sector to private investment. This move was intended to inject innovation, increase launch capacity, and accelerate technological development by harnessing the dynamism of the commercial market, mirroring the success of the commercial space industry in the United States. Since then, a vibrant and rapidly growing commercial space ecosystem has emerged, operating in a unique landscape defined by a mix of private capital, strong government support, and close ties to the state-owned incumbents.

Government Policy and the “New Growth Engine”

The development of China’s commercial space sector has been actively guided and encouraged by the state. The initial 2014 policy was followed by further supportive measures, including the inclusion of “satellite internet” in the government’s list of “new infrastructures” in 2020, which signaled strong state backing for the development of commercial satellite constellations.

This top-down support has created a fertile environment for investment. The sector relies on a mixture of private venture capital and, significantly, local and provincial state-led industrial funds. Numerous cities and provinces, including Beijing, Shanghai, and Shandong, have established “space industry industrial parks” and action plans to attract and nurture commercial space startups. The central government has designated the commercial space sector as a “new growth engine,” a clear signal of its strategic importance and a catalyst for intense competition among regional governments to build local space industry clusters.

While the government encourages private enterprise, the relationship between commercial companies and the state is complex and deeply intertwined. Many of the leading commercial firms were founded by former employees of the state-owned giants CASC and CASIC, bringing with them valuable expertise and institutional knowledge. The government also supports these new companies by granting access to state-owned test facilities and providing government contracts. This model is often described as “commercialization with Chinese characteristics,” a hybrid system where market dynamics operate within a framework of state control and strategic direction.

Key Players in the Commercial Launch Sector

The most visible segment of China’s commercial space industry is launch services, with over 20 companies now developing their own rockets. These firms are primarily focused on the small and medium-lift market, catering to the growing demand for deploying satellite constellations. Several companies have emerged as leaders, achieving successful orbital launches.

• LandSpace: One of the earliest and most prominent commercial launch companies, LandSpace made history in July 2023 when its Zhuque-2 rocket became the world’s first methane-fueled rocket to successfully reach orbit. Methane-liquid oxygen (methalox) is considered a next-generation propellant due to its high performance and cleaner combustion, which is advantageous for reusable engines. The company is now developing the larger, reusable Zhuque-3, a stainless-steel rocket comparable in class to SpaceX’s Falcon 9.
• Galactic Energy: Founded in 2018, Galactic Energy has established a strong track record with its Ceres-1 small-lift solid-fuel rocket, which has completed numerous successful launches from both land and sea platforms. The company is also developing a medium-lift, reusable liquid-fuel rocket called Pallas-1, which will use kerosene and liquid oxygen.
• Orienspace: This company made a powerful debut in January 2024 with the successful maiden flight of its Gravity-1 rocket. A solid-fuel vehicle launched from a sea platform, Gravity-1 became the most powerful solid-propellant rocket in the world and the most powerful commercial Chinese rocket to date, capable of lifting 6.5 tonnes to LEO. The company is also developing the larger, partially reusable Gravity-2.
• CAS Space: A spin-off from the state-owned Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS Space operates the Lijian-1 (Kinetica 1), a four-stage solid-fuel rocket. It is the largest solid-propellant launcher in China and has conducted multiple successful flights, deploying dozens of satellites. The company is also developing a series of reusable liquid-fuel rockets.

Other notable launch companies include i-Space, Deep Blue Aerospace, and Space Pioneer, all of whom are developing their own launch vehicles with a focus on reusability and innovative propulsion technologies.

Commercial Satellite and Application Companies

Beyond launch, a growing number of commercial companies are focused on building and operating satellites and providing downstream data services.

• Spacety: Based in Changsha, Spacety is a leading provider of small satellites and has launched dozens of spacecraft for commercial and scientific missions. The company is actively developing its own synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite constellation to provide global Earth observation services.
• Chang Guang Satellite Technology (CGSTL): A spin-off from the state-owned CAS, CGSTL operates the Jilin-1 constellation, one of the world’s largest commercial remote sensing satellite systems. With over 100 satellites in orbit, Jilin-1 provides high-resolution optical imagery with a very high revisit rate, enabling frequent monitoring of locations on Earth.
• Piesat: This company specializes in geospatial data processing and remote sensing applications, providing software and services that turn raw satellite imagery into actionable intelligence for various industries.
• Geespace: A subsidiary of the automotive giant Geely, Geespace is building a LEO constellation to provide high-precision navigation and connectivity services for autonomous vehicles.

The rise of these commercial players has significantly broadened China’s space industrial base. While the state-owned enterprises CASC and CASIC still dominate the landscape and handle all major national missions, the commercial sector is introducing competition, driving innovation in areas like reusable rocketry and methalox engines, and rapidly increasing the country’s overall capacity for accessing and utilizing space.

Commercial Launch Vehicle Capabilities

The following table highlights the key launch vehicles being developed by China’s leading commercial space companies.

The Future: To the Moon, Mars, and Beyond

China’s space program is not resting on its current achievements. Its future ambitions are clearly defined and extend far beyond low Earth orbit. The nation has laid out a detailed roadmap for the next several decades that includes landing taikonauts on the Moon, establishing a permanent international research base at the lunar south pole, and eventually sending crewed missions to Mars. These plans are not just aspirational; they are backed by the development of new, powerful launch vehicles and spacecraft, and are progressing with the same methodical determination that has characterized the program to date.

A Crewed Mission to the Moon

China has officially announced its goal to land taikonauts on the Moon before 2030. This endeavor is a top national priority and represents the next major milestone for the China Manned Space Program. The mission architecture involves two launches of a new, powerful rocket. One rocket will launch the Lanyue lunar lander, and the other will launch the Mengzhou crewed spacecraft. The two vehicles will rendezvous and dock in lunar orbit. Two taikonauts will then transfer to the Lanyue lander for the descent to the lunar surface, while the third crew member remains in orbit aboard Mengzhou.

After completing their surface mission, which will include deploying scientific instruments and driving a lunar rover named Tansuo, the taikonauts will ascend in the Lanyue and redock with Mengzhou for the return journey to Earth.

Development of the key hardware for this mission is well underway. The Long March 10, a new-generation super heavy-lift rocket, is being developed specifically for these lunar missions. It will be capable of sending a payload of at least 27 tonnes on a trans-lunar injection trajectory. Prototypes of the Mengzhou spacecraft and the Lanyue lander have already undergone successful tests, including a pad abort test for the crew capsule and simulated landing and takeoff tests for the lander at a specialized facility.

The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)

China’s long-term vision for the Moon extends beyond initial landings to the establishment of a permanent, sustainable presence. The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) is a comprehensive scientific facility that China plans to build at the Moon’s south pole, a region of high scientific interest due to the potential presence of water ice in permanently shadowed craters.

The ILRS is conceived as an international and open project, positioned as an alternative to the U.S.-led Artemis program. China and Russia signed a memorandum of understanding in 2021 to jointly develop the station, and they have since been actively recruiting other national and organizational partners. As of 2024, numerous countries have joined the ILRS project, including Pakistan, the UAE, South Africa, Egypt, Belarus, and Venezuela, along with organizations like the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO).

The construction of the ILRS is planned in phases:

• Phase 1 (Reconnaissance, through 2025): This phase involves robotic missions like Chang’e 7 and 8 to survey the south pole, characterize the environment, and test key technologies for resource utilization.
• Phase 2 (Construction, 2026-2035): This phase will see the establishment of a basic station with capabilities for energy supply, communications, and scientific research. It will be built through a series of robotic missions (ILRS-1 through ILRS-5) and will be designed for long-term autonomous operation with short-term human visits.
• Phase 3 (Utilization, from 2036): This phase involves the expansion of the station and the beginning of long-term, regular human presence on the Moon, using the ILRS as a base for comprehensive scientific research and resource development.

The scientific objectives for the ILRS are broad, including lunar geology, lunar-based astronomy, Earth observation, and fundamental physics experiments. The project represents a major strategic effort by China to lead a new era of international space collaboration centered around its own ambitious lunar infrastructure.

The Red Planet and Beyond

While the Moon is the next major destination, China’s ambitions reach even further. The nation’s long-term space science roadmap explicitly includes crewed Mars exploration as a goal for around 2050. This timeline is intended to align with the country’s second centennial goal of achieving “national rejuvenation” by 2049, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China.

The path to a crewed Mars mission will be incremental, building on the experience gained from lunar missions. The ILRS on the Moon is seen as a important staging point and testing ground for the technologies that will be required for the much longer and more complex journey to Mars. Key steps on this path include the Tianwen-3 Mars sample-return mission, planned for around 2030, which will demonstrate the ability to launch a vehicle from the Martian surface and return it to Earth—a critical prerequisite for any human mission.

To enable these deep space expeditions, China is also developing the Long March 9, a super-heavy-lift launch vehicle comparable in class to NASA’s Space Launch System or SpaceX’s Starship. With a planned capability to lift 150 tonnes to LEO and 50 tonnes on a trans-Mars trajectory, the Long March 9 will be essential for launching the large spacecraft and habitats needed for a human mission to the Red Planet. The rocket is being designed with full reusability as a long-term goal, utilizing advanced methalox engines. The development of such a powerful launch vehicle is seen as a foundational technology that will not only enable crewed Mars missions but will also stimulate progress across a wide range of high-end manufacturing and materials science industries.

Summary

China’s space program has evolved from a modest, defense-oriented initiative into a comprehensive, world-class enterprise that is a central element of its national identity and global strategy. Its journey has been characterized by a unique blend of long-term, methodical planning, a deep-rooted commitment to self-reliance, and the strategic use of international cooperation to advance its own objectives. Through a series of carefully executed, incremental steps, China has systematically mastered the full spectrum of space capabilities.

It has established independent access to space with its reliable and increasingly powerful Long March family of rockets. It has built a multi-layered satellite infrastructure, including the global BeiDou navigation system and the high-resolution Gaofen Earth observation constellation, which serve critical economic and security functions. In human spaceflight, the nation progressed from its first solo flight in 2003 to the completion of the permanently crewed, multi-module Tiangong space station in less than two decades, a feat of remarkable speed and efficiency. Its robotic explorers have achieved a series of historic firsts on the Moon and Mars, returning invaluable scientific data and demonstrating sophisticated deep space capabilities.

This entire enterprise is supported by a robust network of ground infrastructure and managed by a tightly integrated system of government, military, and state-owned industrial organizations that work in concert to achieve national goals. The recent opening of the sector to commercial enterprise has further accelerated innovation, particularly in launch vehicle technology, adding a new layer of dynamism to the country’s space ecosystem.

Looking ahead, China’s ambitions are clear and far-reaching. With plans to land taikonauts on the Moon before 2030, establish an international research station at the lunar south pole, and eventually send crewed missions to Mars, China is poised to be a leading actor in shaping the future of space exploration. Its program is not merely a scientific endeavor but a grand strategic project designed to secure its place as a technological and geopolitical leader in the 21st century and beyond.