A History of Canada’s Human Spaceflight Program

A Nation in Space

Canada’s story in space doesn’t begin with a person. It begins with a machine. Long before the first Canadian astronaut corps was formed, Canada had quietly and methodically established itself as a global leader in space technology. This early leadership, built on a foundation of sophisticated engineering and a clear focus on niche applications, would eventually become the leverage used to place its citizens in orbit. The history of Canadian astronauts isn’t a story of rockets; it’s a story of robotics, resourcefulness, and a decades-long strategy of providing indispensable technology in exchange for a seat at the table.

The origins of this strategy can be traced back to the end of the Second World War, when Canadian researchers began conducting studies of the upper atmosphere. This work culminated in a moment of significant national achievement. On September 29, 1962, Canada launched the Alouette 1 satellite. With this single launch, Canada became just the third country in the world to design, build, and launch its own artificial satellite, following only the Soviet Union and the United States.

Alouette 1 was not a token effort. It was a sophisticated, Canadian-built scientific instrument designed to study the ionosphere. At a time when satellites were expected to last only a few months, Alouette 1 transmitted valuable data for over 10 years, outlasting any other satellite of its era. It was a clear demonstration of Canada’s advanced engineering capabilities. This success was followed by a series of other advanced satellites, including ISIS 1, ISIS 2, and the experimental communications satellite Hermes in 1976. In 1972, Canada launched Anik A1, its first domestic communications satellite, and established Telesat, a company tasked with operating a national satellite communications network. By the 1970s, Canada had also established critical ground infrastructure, like the David Florida Laboratory in 1972, a world-class facility for integrating and testing spacecraft.

It was this established reputation for engineering excellence that led to the single most important partnership in Canadian space history. In the 1970s, NASA was deep in the development of its new reusable Space Shuttle. The shuttle was a revolutionary concept – a space-faring truck – and it needed a tool that didn’t exist yet: a robotic arm to deploy and retrieve payloads from its cargo bay. In 1974, NASA sought out Canadian expertise for this highly specialized piece of technology.

Canada, through the National Research Council (NRC), agreed to develop and build the first flight-qualified robotic arm, known as the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System, or, more famously, the Canadarm. It was a high-stakes gamble. The arm was first deployed in orbit from the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1981, and its success was immediate and spectacular. The 15-meter arm worked flawlessly, becoming an iconic and indispensable part of the shuttle fleet for the next 30 years. It would be used to deploy satellites, retrieve malfunctioning ones for repair, serve as a mobile work platform for spacewalking astronauts, and, most famously, help build the International Space Station.

The success of the Canadarm was the key that unlocked human spaceflight for Canada. The arm wasn’t just a piece of hardware; it was a bargaining chip. In 1982, in recognition of this vital technological contribution, NASA invited Canada to fly one of its own people on a future mission. This invitation was the direct catalyst for the creation of Canada’s first astronaut team.

This history reveals the foundational philosophy of the Canadian astronaut program. Canada secured its path to human spaceflight not by building its own launch vehicles, but by providing a high-value, niche technology that its partners could not do without. This “robotics-for-seats” barter established a precedent that would define Canada’s human spaceflight strategy for the next four decades.

The timeline also reveals a peculiar fact: Canada had astronauts before it had a space agency. The first recruitment in 1983 was managed by the National Research Council, the same body that had overseen the Canadarm project. The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) itself wouldn’t be formally established until 1989. The nation’s human spaceflight program began as a specific, project-based response to an opportunity – a human dividend paid on a national investment in robotics.

The First Explorers: The 1983 Recruitment

The 1982 invitation from NASA set off a flurry of activity. In 1983, the National Research Council put out a national call for astronaut applicants. The response was overwhelming. More than 4,000 Canadians from all walks of life applied for the handful of available positions.

The selection criteria were rigorous. Candidates needed exceptional academic backgrounds in science, engineering, or medicine, coupled with extensive professional experience, excellent physical health, and strong communication skills. This last point was vital; these individuals wouldn’t just be technicians but ambassadors for a new national program.

After a grueling hiring process, six people were selected on December 5, 1983, to form the first Canadian astronaut corps: Roberta Bondar, Marc Garneau, Steve MacLean, Ken Money, Robert Thirsk, and Bjarni Tryggvason.

This first group immediately set Canada’s program on a different path from its American counterpart. While the original NASA “Mercury Seven” were all military test pilots, Canada’s “Original Six” were a cross-section of the country’s scientific and engineering strengths. They included two physicians (Bondar and Thirsk, with Money also having a medical background), two engineers (Garneau and Tryggvason), and a physicist (MacLean).

This reflected the role they were chosen to play. They were not selected to pilot the shuttle; they were selected as “Payload Specialists.” Their primary job would be to operate the complex Canadian scientific experiments, known as CANEX, that would fly with them. Their value was their scientific utility, a perfect extension of the program’s technology-first origins.

From the group of six, Marc Garneau was chosen for the first flight. A Quebec City native, Garneau was a consummate engineer, holding a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and serving as a combat systems engineer in the Canadian Navy. His expertise in naval communications and electronic warfare systems made him an ideal candidate for the complex technical work of a payload specialist.

On October 5, 1984, Garneau made history, launching aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on mission STS-41-G. As his feet lifted off the floor of the shuttle’s mid-deck, he became the first Canadian citizen to fly in space.

During the eight-day mission, Garneau’s main responsibility was to execute the first Canadian-managed experiment package, CANEX-1. This suite of 10 experiments was a microcosm of Canada’s space interests, focusing on three areas: space technology (testing a new Space Vision System), space science (studying the characteristics of the upper atmosphere), and life sciences (investigating human adaptation to weightlessness). His flight was a flawless technical success and a moment of immense national pride.

Garneau’s journey in space was far from over. He retired from the Navy and in 1992, he returned to NASA to train as a full-fledged Mission Specialist, a role with far greater operational responsibilities than a payload specialist. He flew again in 1996 on STS-77, where he operated the Canadarm and worked on the Canadian Aquatic Research Facility (ARF).

His third and final flight, STS-97 in 2000, was a critical assembly mission for the fledgling International Space Station (ISS). On this mission, Garneau’s expertise came full circle. He operated the Canadarm – the very technology that had earned Canada its place in space – to grasp and install the first set of massive solar arrays onto the ISS, bringing the station its first major source of power. In total, he logged over 677 hours in space.

Following his flight career, Garneau became a central figure in Canada’s space administration, serving as Executive Vice President and then President of the Canadian Space Agency from 2001 to 2005. He then transitioned to a “second act” in public service, entering federal politics where he served as a Member of Parliament and held several senior cabinet positions, including Minister of Transport and Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Roberta Bondar: A New Perspective

If Garneau’s flight represented Canada’s technical and engineering prowess, the program’s second flight represented its scientific soul. Dr. Roberta Bondar, chosen from the 1983 group, was a brilliant and highly accomplished scientist. Hailing from Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, she held a Ph.D. in Neurobiology and was a medical doctor specializing in neurology.

On January 22, 1992, Bondar launched aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery for mission STS-42. With this flight, she became Canada’s first female astronaut and the world’s first neurologist in space.

Bondar’s role was as a prime Payload Specialist for the first International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-1), a pressurized Spacelab module packed with scientific equipment. For eight days, she was consumed by a demanding schedule, conducting or monitoring over 40 advanced experiments on behalf of scientists from 14 different nations. The research covered a vast range of topics, from plant biology (such as the “Roots and Shoots” experiment with oak seedlings) to human physiology. Bondar also conducted her own research into the effects of microgravity on blood flow to the brain, using her fellow crewmates as test subjects.

Her career path after space was markedly different from Garneau’s. While others in her class would build long careers within the space agency, Bondar’s flight was the pinnacle of her agency career. She left the Canadian Space Agency in September 1992, just months after her return.

She used the significant, life-altering experience of spaceflight as a catalyst for a new, public-facing mission. Having seen the Earth from orbit, she became a passionate advocate for environmental protection. She leveraged her fame to become an accomplished author and professional nature photographer, capturing Canada’s National Parks and other ecologically significant areas. She later founded The Roberta Bondar Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to connecting people to the natural world and promoting environmental education. Bondar didn’t just visit space; she brought its unique perspective back to Earth.

The Original Six: Thirsk, MacLean, Tryggvason, and Money

The other four members of the 1A83 class had varied careers. Bjarni Tryggvason, an engineer, flew on one mission, STS-85 in 1997. During this flight, he operated a Canadian-designed instrument used to study the Earth’s atmosphere.

Robert Thirsk and Steve MacLean would go on to have long, multi-flight careers, becoming central figures in the upcoming International Space Station era. Their work would bridge the gap from the short-term shuttle missions to long-duration stays in orbit.

The story of the “Original Six” also includes an important, grounding reality. Ken Money, a distinguished scientist and physician, was one of the original six selected. He trained with his colleagues and served the program, but he was never assigned to a space mission. His career highlights the harsh truth of human spaceflight: selection is not a guarantee of flight. With only a limited number of “bartered” seats available, competition is intense, and some qualified astronauts will, through no fault of their own, remain Earth-bound.

The Second Generation: The 1992 Recruitment

By 1992, the Canadian Space Agency was firmly established, and the success of Garneau and Bondar had cemented the astronaut program’s value. The CSA launched its second national recruitment campaign, and this time, over 5,000 people applied.

The agency selected four new candidates: Chris Hadfield, Julie Payette, Dafydd “Dave” Williams, and Michael McKay.

This 1992 “CSA Group” represented a strategic shift. The 1983 class had been largely composed of payload specialists, “visitors” who flew on a single mission to conduct specific experiments. This new class was different. They were selected to become career astronauts, fully integrated into NASA’s corps as Mission Specialists. They moved their families to Houston, Texas, worked in NASA’s Johnson Space Center, served as CAPCOMs (capsule communicators) in Mission Control, and trained for complex operational tasks like spacewalks and robotics. They weren’t just “using the ticket” that Canadarm had bought; they were being trained to help build and operate the next great international project: the International Space Station.

Chris Hadfield: Canada’s Spacewalker and Commander

No Canadian astronaut has captured the public imagination quite like Chris Hadfield. Raised on a corn farm in southern Ontario, he was inspired to become an astronaut at age nine while watching the Apollo 11 Moon landing on television. He pursued this dream with singular focus, becoming a top fighter pilot and test pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force, logging thousands of hours in dozens of different aircraft.

Hadfield’s first mission, STS-74 in 1995, was a flight on Space Shuttle Atlantis to the Russian space station Mir. As a mission specialist, he became the first Canadian to operate the Canadarm in orbit. He also became the only Canadian to ever board the legendary Mir station, docking a five-tonne module to the station.

His second flight, STS-100 in 2001, was a pivotal moment for both Hadfield and Canada. The mission’s primary task was to deliver and install Canadarm2, the new, larger, and more advanced Canadian robotic arm, onto the International Space Station. To do this, Hadfield performed two Extra-Vehicular Activities (EVAs). On April 22, 2001, he emerged from the airlock, tethered to the station, and became the first Canadian to ever perform a spacewalk. Over the course of his two EVAs, he spent 14 hours and 50 minutes working in the vacuum of space to assemble and power up the new arm, a symbolic passing of the torch from one generation of Canadian robotics to the next.

Hadfield’s career was a series of firsts. He served as the CSA’s Chief Astronaut from 1996 to 2000 and as NASA’s Director of Operations in Star City, Russia, from 2001 to 2003, coordinating the ISS partnership.

His third mission cemented his legacy. In 2012, he launched on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft for a long-duration stay on the ISS. On Expedition 34/35, Hadfield took his technical skills and combined them with an innate talent for communication. Through social media, he shared stunning photographs of Earth, answered questions from the public, and chronicled the daily life of an astronaut in a way no one had before. On March 13, 2013, he made history again, becoming the first Canadian to serve as Commander of the International Space Station. His mission’s end was marked by a now-famous viral video of him playing David Bowie’s “Space Oddity” while floating inside the station.

Hadfield retired in 2013, having transformed the public’s relationship with space. He went on to become a best-selling author and a globally sought-after public speaker, continuing his mission of sharing the human experience of spaceflight.

Julie Payette: A Specialist on the Station

Selected alongside Hadfield, Julie Payette of Montreal brought a formidable background in engineering. With degrees in electrical and computer engineering, she was a systems expert, a pilot, and fluent in multiple languages.

Her first mission, STS-96 in 1999, was aboard Space Shuttle Discovery. This mission performed the first-ever manual docking of the shuttle to the still-young International Space Station. When she floated through the hatch, Payette became the first Canadian to board the ISS. As a mission specialist, her main responsibility was to manage the station’s systems, and she also operated the shuttle’s Canadarm.

Payette’s second mission, STS-127 in 2009, highlighted her deep technical expertise. Serving as the Flight Engineer aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour, she was part of a complex assembly mission to the ISS. This flight was notable for two reasons. First, it marked the first time two Canadians were in space at the same time; her 1983-class colleague, Robert Thirsk, was already aboard the ISS for a long-duration mission, leading to a historic all-Canadian handshake in orbit. Second, her robotics skills were on full display. During the mission, Payette operated all three robotic arms on the station complex: the shuttle’s Canadarm, the station’s Canadarm2, and the Japanese Kibo experiment module’s arm.

Like Hadfield, Payette’s career was long and varied. She served as the CSA’s Chief Astronaut from 2000 to 2007 and worked for years as a CAPCOM in Houston’s Mission Control, her voice guiding astronauts in orbit. After retiring from the CSA in 2013, she, like Garneau, entered a “second act” of high-profile public service, and in 2017 was appointed as Canada’s 29th Governor General.

Dafydd Williams: Mission Specialist and Aquanaut

Dr. Dafydd “Dave” Williams, a physician and scientist, was the third “professional” astronaut from the 1992 class to fly. His career specialized in the area where medicine and operations overlap.

His first flight, STS-90 in 1998, was a 16-day Spacelab mission on Columbia nicknamed “Neurolab.” As a mission specialist, the medical doctor was a perfect fit, serving as both an operator and a subject for 26 different neuroscience experiments studying the effects of microgravity on the brain and nervous system.

His second mission, STS-118 in 2007, was an ISS assembly flight. On this mission, Williams conducted three spacewalks, becoming the third Canadian to walk in space. He set a new Canadian record at the time, with a total of 17 hours and 47 minutes working outside the station.

The Unflown: The Career of Michael McKay

Just as with the 1983 class, the 1992 recruitment also included a member who would not ultimately fly. Michael McKay was selected and completed his training, but he was never assigned to a mission. His career serves as another reminder of the fierce competition for a very limited number of flight assignments in a program that depends on partners for its rides to space.

A Permanent Home: The International Space Station Era

The launch of the first ISS module in 1998, and Canada’s integral role in its construction and operation, marked a fundamental shift for the astronaut program. The goal was no longer short, 1-2 week “visits” on the Space Shuttle. The goal was residency. This new era of permanent human presence in space was made possible, once again, by Canada’s robotics.

Canada’s Robotic Handshake: Canadarm2 and Dextre

Canada’s contribution to the ISS is not a habitable module but the station’s entire Mobile Servicing System (MSS). This sophisticated robotics suite is arguably the most critical operational tool on the station. It was this contribution that gave Canada permanent access to the station’s laboratory facilities and secured long-duration flight opportunities for its astronauts.

Canadarm2: The Station’s Workhorse

Installed by Chris Hadfield in 2001, Canadarm2 is the successor to the original shuttle arm, but it’s a far more advanced beast. At 17 meters (57.7 feet) long, it’s bigger and “smarter” than its predecessor.

Its most significant feature is its mobility. Unlike the original arm, which was bolted to one spot in the shuttle’s cargo bay, Canadarm2 is a “space-faring inchworm.” It has two identical “hands,” or Latching End Effectors. By anchoring one hand to a Power Data Grapple Fixture on the station’s exterior, it can use the other hand to move. It then “un-plugs” the first hand and swings it to the next fixture, allowing it to “walk” end-over-end along the station’s truss.

Its primary functions are twofold. First, it was used to build the station itself, hoisting entire modules into place. Today, its main jobs are maintenance and logistics. It performs “cosmic catches,” reaching out to grapple unpiloted cargo ships (like the SpaceX Dragon) that fly close to the station but cannot dock on their own. The arm then carefully berths the ship to a port, allowing the crew to unload supplies.

Dextre: The Robotic Handyman

If Canadarm2 is the station’s arm, then Dextre is its hand. Officially the “Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator,” Dextre is a 3.7-meter-tall, two-armed robot that was installed in 2008. It typically rides on the end of Canadarm2 to move between worksites.

Dextre is the station’s remote-controlled mechanic. Its purpose is to perform the fine, delicate, and often dangerous tasks that would otherwise require an astronaut to conduct a risky spacewalk. Each of its “hands” is a “Swiss Army knife” of engineering, equipped with a retractable motorized wrench, a camera and lights for close-up work, and a connector to provide power and data to the component it’s handling.

Controlled by operators on the ground at CSA headquarters in Quebec and at NASA in Houston, Dextre’s job list includes replacing the station’s 100-kg batteries, swapping out faulty cameras, and even testing experimental satellite refueling techniques. By handling this routine maintenance, Dextre saves hundreds of hours of astronaut time and significantly reduces the risk to the crew.

Robert Thirsk: Canada’s First Long-Duration Astronaut

The new station and its Canadian-built systems needed a long-term Canadian presence. That role fell to Dr. Robert Thirsk, one of the “Original Six” from 1983. His career perfectly bridges the two eras of Canadian spaceflight.

Thirsk’s first flight was STS-78 in 1996, a 17-day Spacelab mission focused on life and materials science. But it was his second mission that made history.

In 2009, Thirsk launched aboard a Russian Soyuz TMA-15 spacecraft for Expedition 20/21. This flight made him the first Canadian to make a long-duration stay on the ISS. His mission, which lasted 188 days, set a new Canadian space endurance record. As a flight engineer and medical doctor, Thirsk was responsible for a vast array of scientific experiments, including the “Bodies in the Space Environment” (BISE) experiment, which studied how astronauts distinguish up from down in microgravity.

His mission was also the stage for a unique Canadian milestone. While he was in orbit, the Space Shuttle Endeavour arrived on mission STS-127, carrying his 1992-class colleague, Julie Payette. Their meeting on the station was the first time two Canadians had ever been in space at the same time.

Steve MacLean: From Shuttle to Station

Steve MacLean, another 1983 original, also had a career that spanned both eras. His first flight, STS-52 in 1992, was a science mission where he tested an early version of the Space Vision System, a Canadian technology that helped astronauts “see” what the robotic arm was doing.

His second flight, STS-115 in 2006, was a critical ISS assembly mission. During this flight, MacLean became the second Canadian to perform a spacewalk, following Chris Hadfield. He also became the first Canadian to operate Canadarm2 and its Mobile Base System in its fully operational role, using it to install a massive 17.5-ton truss and solar array segment onto the station.

Like Garneau, MacLean’s post-flight career saw him take the helm of the Canadian Space Agency, serving as its President from 2008 to 2013, where he oversaw the very program he had helped build in orbit.

Science in Microgravity: The Canadian Experiment

Why send people to live in orbit for six months at a time? For Canada, the primary answer is science. The ISS is a unique laboratory where the variable of gravity has been removed, allowing researchers to study the human body and other phenomena in ways impossible on Earth. For Canadian medical researchers, the space station has become a kindor of “time machine” for studying human disease.

In the weightless environment of space, the human body changes rapidly. Without the constant pull of gravity, muscles and bones begin to atrophy. Fluids shift upwards, putting strain on the cardiovascular system. These changes are remarkably similar to the effects of aging and sedentary lifestyles on Earth, but they happen on a massively compressed timescale. What takes 10-20 years to develop on the ground can manifest in an astronaut in just six months. This allows scientists to study the onset of these conditions in the healthy, fit bodies of astronauts, providing invaluable data for treating an aging population back home.

Key Canadian Experiments

Canada’s life science program on the ISS is world-renowned and has focused on several key areas of human health.

• Vascular Aging: This suite of experiments is one of Canada’s most prominent. Researchers have found that after just six months in space, astronauts’ arteries stiffen by an amount equivalent to 10 to 20 years of normal aging on Earth. Astronauts also show signs of developing insulin resistance, a precursor to Type 2 diabetes. Using ultrasounds, blood tests, and glucose tests on the station, the Vascular experiment tracks these changes, and the findings have been revealing. Data suggests that the rigorous daily aerobic exercise astronauts perform is not enough, on its own, to prevent these cardiovascular issues. This has direct implications for developing new exercise and health strategies for increasingly sedentary populations on Earth.
• TBone and MARROW: These experiments study the accelerated bone loss that astronauts experience, which closely mimics osteoporosis. “Space anemia,” a drop in red blood cells, is also a common affliction. Using advanced 3D imaging and blood analysis, these studies investigate how microgravity causes fat to accumulate in bone marrow, affecting the production of both bone and blood cells. This research helps in the search for countermeasures for astronauts on long missions (to the Moon or Mars) and for patients with bone-loss diseases on Earth.
• At Home in Space: Not all experiments are physical. This is a Canadian psychosocial study that examines how multinational crews adapt to living and working together in a confined, isolated, and high-stress environment for long periods. The findings help design better living conditions for future missions and have direct applications for teams in similar isolated environments on Earth, from remote research stations to military submarines.

Remote Medicine for a Remote Nation

Much of Canada’s most innovative space technology is a direct reflection of its own national challenges. Canada is a vast, sparsely populated country, and many of its citizens live in remote northern communities with limited access to medical facilities. An astronaut on the ISS, 400 km above the Earth, faces a very similar problem: they are isolated, and the nearest doctor is a long way away.

Canada has used the space program as a high-tech incubator to solve this shared problem of remote healthcare.

• The Bio-Monitor: This Canadian technology is a “smart shirt” and headband system. The garments are woven with sensors that continuously monitor and record an astronaut’s vital signs – heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, skin temperature, and blood-oxygen saturation – without the need for cumbersome wires or monitors. This allows for 24/7 health monitoring, and the data can be sent directly to flight surgeons on the ground. Its potential for Earth is clear: a patient in a remote community could wear the shirt, and their data could be sent to a doctor in a hospital hundreds of miles away.
• The Bio-Analyzer: This device is a “lab-in-a-box” the size of a video game console. In space, astronauts often have to draw their own blood for experiments. Previously, these samples would be frozen and stored for months until they could be returned to Earth on a cargo ship, a process that can degrade the samples. The Bio-Analyzer solves this. Using just a tiny finger prick of blood, saliva, or urine, it can perform key biomedical analyses in minutes. This technology provides scientists with near-real-time data and has the potential to revolutionize point-of-care diagnostics in remote clinics on Earth.

Training for the Void

Becoming one of Canada’s astronauts is an exceptionally difficult process, and the selection is only the beginning. For every hour spent in space, an astronaut spends thousands of hours training on the ground. The job of an astronaut is a career of constant, relentless preparation, often for decades.

The Selection Process

The odds are astronomical. The 2017 recruitment campaign, for example, received 3,772 applications for just two positions. The basic requirements are a filter in themselves: candidates must have a university degree in a science, technology, engineering, or math (STEM) field, or be a medical doctor. They must also have at least three years of relevant professional experience.

Beyond the academic qualifications, they must meet exacting physical and medical standards for height, weight, vision, and overall health. Finally, they are tested on a range of “soft skills” essential for the job: judgment, integrity, teamwork, resourcefulness, and the ability to communicate complex ideas clearly.

The Three Phases of Training

When a new candidate is selected, they begin a three-phase training program that can span their entire career.

1. Basic Training: This is a two-year “boot camp,” usually conducted with the new NASA astronaut class in Houston. This period is designed to bring recruits from varied backgrounds – doctors, pilots, engineers – to the same high level of general knowledge. The curriculum is intense, covering everything from ISS systems, robotics, and the Russian language (which is mandatory for all ISS astronauts) to T-38 jet proficiency, spacewalk training, and survival skills.
2. Pre-Assignment: This is the longest phase of an astronaut’s career, the “waiting period” between basic training and a mission assignment, which can last many years. Astronauts are not idle. They are fully employed, supporting the space program from the ground. They work in Mission Control as CAPCOMs, help test new hardware and software, develop procedures for spacewalks and robotics, and train otherastronauts. They must also maintain all their own skills, from Russian language to robotics certifications.
3. Mission-Specific: Once an astronaut is assigned to a flight, they begin a 1-2 year training program tailored specifically for that mission. They train exhaustively on the scientific experiments they conducts, the specific spacewalks they might perform, and the vehicle that will take them there (like the Soyuz, Dragon, or Starliner).

Simulating Space on Earth

How do you prepare for an environment that cannot be replicated on Earth? Agency partners have developed a remarkable setto of high-fidelity simulations to train astronauts for every aspect of a mission.

• Spacewalks (EVA): To practice for spacewalks, astronauts spend hundreds of hours at the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) in Houston. This is a gigantic swimming pool – holding 6.2 million gallons of water – that contains a full-scale, high-fidelity mockup of the entire International Space Station. Astronauts get into pressurized spacesuits, and a team of support divers attaches weights and flotation devices to make them “neutrally buoyant.” While not a perfect simulation of zero gravity, it’s the best way on Earth to practice the floating, weightless sensation of moving and working in a bulky, pressurized suit.
• Robotics: Canadian astronauts must be masters of their country’s most famous technology. They spend countless hours at the CSA headquarters in Longueuil, Quebec, working in advanced simulators that replicate the robotics workstation on the ISS. Here, they practice operating Canadarm2 and Dextre, over and over, until the complex maneuvers required for a “cosmic catch” of a cargo ship become second nature.
• Isolation and Psychology (CAVES): A long-duration space mission is an exercise in psychological endurance. To test this, astronauts participate in the European Space Agency’s CAVES program. This training involves a team of astronauts living and working for a week, completely isolated, in the dark, damp, and hostile environment of a deep cave system. They conduct real field science, but the true objective is to test their “human behavior and performance skills” under conditions of extreme stress, confinement, and danger, mirroring life on a spacecraft.
• Isolation and Operations (NEEMO): NASA’s Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO) is another high-fidelity simulation. Astronauts are sent to live for weeks at a time in the Aquarius underwater habitat, a research station submerged off the coast of Florida. From this “space station” on the seafloor, they conduct “waterwalks” on the ocean floor to test tools, techniques, and operational procedures for future space missions.
• Survival: Every astronaut is trained for the worst-case scenario: a landing that goes wrong. Their capsules (Soyuz, Dragon, Starliner, or Orion) are designed to land in a specific, prepared area. But if a problem occurs, they could find themselves landing hundreds of miles off course – in a remote forest, a desert, or the open ocean, in either summer or winter. All astronauts must complete rigorous wilderness survival training, learning how to use the capsule’s survival kit to stay alive for days until rescue crews can reach them.

The New Generation: 2009 and 2017 Recruits

While the first two classes of astronauts defined Canada’s role on the Shuttle and the assembly of the ISS, the new generation is tasked with maximizing the station’s scientific potential and pushing the frontier beyond Earth orbit.

The 2009 Recruitment

In 2009, the CSA’s third recruitment campaign drew over 5,000 applicants. From that pool, two new astronauts were selected: Jeremy Hansen and David Saint-Jacques.

David Saint-Jacques: The Longest Mission

David Saint-Jacques brought a remarkable “triple-threat” background to the corps: he is an engineer, an astrophysicist, and a medical doctor. His medical career before selection was a perfect, if unintentional, preparation for the Canadian space program: he worked as a family doctor in the remote Inuit community of Puvirnituq in Nunavik, Quebec, providing “remote medicine” on Earth before he ever trained for it in space.

After nearly a decade of training, Saint-Jacques launched on a Soyuz spacecraft on December 3, 2018, for Expedition 58/59. His mission lasted 204 days, a new all-time Canadian record for the longest single spaceflight.

During his nearly seven months in orbit, Saint-Jacques completed a “hat trick” of major Canadian space milestones.

1. Science: He was the first human test subject for the new Canadian Bio-Monitor “smart shirt,” wearing it for 72-hour monitoring sessions. He also operated the new Bio-Analyzer, testing its “lab-in-a-box” capabilities.
2. Spacewalk: On April 8, 2019, he conducted a six-and-a-half-hour spacewalk to perform maintenance on the station, becoming the fourth Canadian to walk in space.
3. Robotics: He became the first Canadian astronaut to perform a “cosmic catch” with Canadarm2, using the arm to grapple a SpaceX Dragon cargo ship and successfully berth it to the station.

The 2017 Recruitment

In 2017, the CSA held its fourth recruitment campaign. From 3,772 applicants, two new candidates were chosen: Joshua Kutryk and Jenni Sidey-Gibbons. They graduated from their two-year basic training in January 2020 and became Canada’s newest full-fledged astronauts.

The Active Corps and Their Assignments

Today, the Canadian Space Agency has four active astronauts, and each is assigned to a critical part of the human spaceflight enterprise, perfectly illustrating the multi-faceted nature of Canada’s modern program.

• Jeremy Hansen: Selected in 2009, Hansen’s career is a testament to the “long wait” that modern astronauts endure. With the retirement of the Space Shuttle, flight opportunities became scarce. Hansen has spent nearly 17 years in the “pre-assignment” phase, becoming a core part of the astronaut office, leading NASA’s 2017 astronaut class, and participating in both CAVES and NEEMO training. His patience has been rewarded with one of the most historic assignments in Canadian history. He is slated to be the Mission Specialist on Artemis II, the first crewed mission to the Moon in over 50 years.
• Jenni Gibbons: A 2017 recruit with a Ph.D. in Engineering from Cambridge, Gibbons (formerly Sidey-Gibbons) has two vital roles. First, she is the designated backup astronaut for Jeremy Hansen on Artemis II, training alongside him to ensure a Canadian is ready for the lunar mission. Second, she is training to be Canada’s first lunar CAPCOM, a ground-based role where she will be one of the voices in Mission Control communicating directly with the Artemis crews, helping to guide the next generation of lunar explorers.
• Joshua Kutryk: A 2017 recruit, Kutryk is an accomplished engineer and Royal Canadian Air Force test pilot. He has been assigned to a six-month mission on the International Space Station, launching aboard the Starliner-1 spacecraft. His flight will be a milestone: he will be the first CSA astronaut to fly on one of NASA’s new Commercial Crew Program vehicles (the Boeing Starliner), marking a new era of access to low Earth orbit.
• David Saint-Jacques: The 2009 recruit and Canadian endurance record-holder, Saint-Jacques is the fourth member of the active corps, currently supporting the program from the ground following his historic 2019 mission.

To the Moon and Beyond: The Future of the Program

Canada’s 40-year-old “robotics-for-seats” strategy, which proved so successful on the Space Shuttle and the ISS, is now being extended to the Moon. As NASA and its international partners embark on the Artemis program to build a sustainable human presence on and around the Moon, Canada has once again secured its place by providing a critical piece of technology.

The centerpiece of the Artemis program is the Lunar Gateway, a small space station that will orbit the Moon, serving as a science lab and a staging post for missions to the lunar surface. Like the ISS, the Gateway is an international collaboration. And like the ISS, its maintenance and assembly will depend on Canadian robotics.

Canada’s contribution to this new lunar architecture is Canadarm3. This won’t be a single arm but a complete “smart” robotic system. It will feature a large, 8.5-meter arm, a smaller, more dexterous arm, and a set of tools. Equipped with advanced software and artificial intelligence, Canadarm3 will be able to perform many of its tasks autonomously, without human intervention, maintaining the Gateway even when astronauts are not present. Its jobs will be to maintain and inspect the station, move science experiments, assist spacewalking astronauts, and catch visiting spacecraft.

In return for contributing Canadarm3, Canada has secured a range of opportunities for lunar science, technology demonstrations, and, most visibly, two astronaut flights to the Moon.

The first of these “paid-for” seats is on Artemis II. This mission, currently planned for no earlier than 2026, will be the first crewed test flight of the new Orion spacecraft. Its crew of four – three NASA astronauts and Canada’s Jeremy Hansen – will not land, but will fly a 10-day mission that will loop them around the Moon, testing the Orion’s systems in deep space. It will be the first time any human has left low Earth orbit since the last Apollo mission in 1972. As Mission Specialist, Jeremy Hansen will make Canada only the second nation in history to send one of its citizens to the lunar vicinity.

The second Canadian flight will be to the Lunar Gateway itself. Canada is also contributing a robotic lunar utility rover that will one day assist astronauts working on the Moon’s surface. While Canada reaches for the Moon, it is also maintaining its strong presence in low Earth orbit, as demonstrated by Joshua Kutryk’s upcoming commercial crew flight to the ISS.

Inspiring a Nation: The STEM Legacy

From the beginning, the Canadian astronaut program has had two parallel missions. The first is operational and scientific: to fly in space, build in space, and conduct research in space. The second is inspirational: to serve as high-profile ambassadors for science and to inspire the next generation.

This second mandate is not just for public goodwill; it is a deliberate and critical part of Canada’s national economic strategy. The Canadian space sector is a multi-billion dollar part of the nation’s “knowledge-based economy,” but industry reports show that as many as 65% of Canadian space companies face difficulties hiring qualified personnel.

The Canadian Space Agency uses the unique, charismatic appeal of its astronauts to address this challenge head-on. Astronauts are powerful role models; 2017 recruit Jenni Gibbons has cited 1983 astronaut Roberta Bondar as her inspiration. The CSA leverages this by investing heavily in educational outreach, providing free, bilingual resources for educators, and running high-profile initiatives like the “Junior Astronauts” campaign.

This “inspiration” mandate is the first step in a long-term national talent pipeline. The goal is to use the excitement of space exploration – of watching a Canadian walk in space or fly around the Moon – to encourage young people to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. These are the students who will one day become the engineers, scientists, and technicians that Canada’s high-tech industry needs to remain globally competitive and to build the next Canadarm.

In this way, the program is a self-perpetuating cycle. Canadian ingenuity in robotics creates the opportunity for astronauts to fly. Those astronauts, in turn, become symbols of national achievement who inspire a new generation to pursue the very scientific and engineering careers that will create the next generation of technology, pushing the frontier even further.

Summary

Canada’s journey in human spaceflight is a story of strategic, focused excellence. It began not with a desire to plant a flag, but with a practical, high-tech contribution. The nation established itself as a serious space power in 1962 with the launch of Alouette 1, an achievement it parlayed into the “barter” that would come to define its program: the technological marvel of the original Canadarm in exchange for seats on the Space Shuttle.

From the historic first flight of Marc Garneau in 1984, Canada’s small, elite astronaut corps has produced a remarkable string of trailblazers. It gave the nation its first woman in space, Roberta Bondar; its first spacewalker and first ISS Commander, Chris Hadfield; and its record-holder for the longest spaceflight, David Saint-Jacques.

Through four recruitment campaigns, Canada has selected just 14 individuals, a tiny fraternity of high-achievers who have played roles far beyond their numbers. They have been indispensable partners in the construction and operation of the International Space Station, a role guaranteed by the nation’s contribution of the station’s robotic workhorses, Canadarm2 and Dextre. From this orbital perch, they have conducted world-class medical science, using their own bodies as test subjects to help researchers on Earth understand the challenges of aging and remote healthcare.

Today, that same 40-year-old strategy of “robotics-for-seats” is being applied to the Moon. The development of the autonomous, AI-driven Canadarm3 has secured Canada a place in the next great chapter of human exploration: a seat for Jeremy Hansen on the Artemis II mission around the Moon. The Canadian astronaut program has always been, and continues to be, a testament to the idea that a nation doesn’t need to be the biggest to be among the best.