Africa and the Growing Influence of the Artemis Accords

The global space sector is undergoing a significant reconfiguration. While the 20th century was defined by a bipolar contest between the United States and the Soviet Union, the 21st century presents a multipolar landscape where emerging economies play a central role. Africa, with its rapid demographic growth and increasing technological capacity, has become a focal point for this new era of space diplomacy. The Artemis Accords , a non-binding multilateral arrangement initiated by the United States government, represents one of the primary mechanisms for this engagement. As of November 2025, four African nations – Rwanda, Nigeria, Angola, and Senegal – have acceded to the Accords, signaling a strategic alignment with the United States’ vision for the civil exploration of the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

This alignment is not merely symbolic. It reflects a pragmatic calculation by African governments to leverage international partnerships for domestic economic development, technology transfer, and capacity building. However, the continent remains a competitive arena. The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), led by China and Russia, offers an alternative framework for space cooperation, creating a complex diplomatic environment where African nations negotiate their interests between competing global powers.

The Architecture of the Artemis Accords

The Artemis Accords, established in 2020, outline a set of principles designed to guide civil space exploration. They are grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, the foundational legal document for international space law. The Accords serve to operationalize the obligations of the Outer Space Treaty, providing specific guidelines for activities such as the extraction of space resources, the deconfliction of activities on the lunar surface, and the interoperability of space systems.

For African signatories, the appeal of the Accords lies in the promise of participation in the Artemis program, which facilitates the return of humans to the Moon and eventual missions to Mars. The framework emphasizes transparency, the public release of scientific data, and the protection of heritage sites in outer space. By signing the Accords, African nations gain access to a coalition of advanced spacefaring states, opening avenues for workforce development and industrial cooperation.

The specific provisions regarding space resources are particularly relevant. The Accords affirm that the extraction and utilization of space resources can be conducted under the auspices of the Outer Space Treaty. For African nations rich in terrestrial mineral resources, this establishes a legal precedent for future extraterrestrial mining activities, positioning them to participate in the nascent lunar economy rather than observing from the sidelines.

Nigeria and Rwanda: The First Signatories

In December 2022, during the U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit in Washington, D.C., Nigeria and Rwanda became the first African nations to sign the Artemis Accords. This simultaneous accession highlighted two distinct approaches to space policy on the continent.

Nigeria: An Established Regional Power

Nigeria possesses one of the most advanced space programs in Africa. The National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) manages a robust portfolio of satellites, including the NigeriaSat series used for earth observation and disaster management. Nigeria’s decision to sign the Accords aligns with its long-standing ambition to develop indigenous launch capabilities and expand its satellite manufacturing sector.

The partnership with the United States through the Accords facilitates technical exchanges that support NASRDA’s objectives. Nigerian engineers and scientists benefit from data sharing agreements and collaborative research projects that enhance their ability to monitor agricultural output, track desertification, and manage urban planning. The agreement also serves a geopolitical function, reinforcing Nigeria’s status as a regional hegemon and a key partner for Western interests in West Africa.

Rwanda: The Emerging Agile Player

Rwanda represents a different model of space development. Lacking the decades-long legacy of Nigeria, the Rwanda Space Agency (RSA) operates with a startup mentality, focusing on downstream applications and regulatory frameworks rather than heavy manufacturing. Rwanda’s accession to the Accords was a strategic move to position Kigali as a hub for space finance and regulation.

The RSA utilizes the Accords to attract foreign direct investment and foster a knowledge-based economy. By aligning with the Artemis standards for interoperability and data sharing, Rwanda ensures its growing space sector remains compatible with global standards. This compatibility is essential for Rwanda’s focus on using satellite data to modernize its agricultural sector, which employs the majority of its workforce. The Accords provide Rwanda with a platform to advocate for the needs of emerging space nations, ensuring that the rules of the road for lunar exploration consider the perspectives of countries without human spaceflight capabilities.

Angola: Strengthening Transatlantic Ties

Angola became the third African signatory in late 2023. The Angolan space program is overseen by the National Space Program Management Office (GGPEN). Angola’s space ambitions are heavily centered on telecommunications to bridge the digital divide across its vast and often inaccessible territory.

The centerpiece of Angola’s space infrastructure is the Angosat-2 satellite, launched in 2022. While Angosat-2 was built in collaboration with Russian aerospace companies, Angola’s signing of the Artemis Accords signifies a diversification of its international partnerships. This multi-vector foreign policy allows Angola to maintain its historical ties while accessing Western technology and markets.

For Angola, the Accords offer opportunities to enhance its earth observation capabilities. GGPEN utilizes satellite data for oil spill detection, a vital function for an economy dependent on hydrocarbon exports. Access to NASA’s earth science data and training programs under the Artemis framework improves Angola’s ability to manage its natural resources and monitor environmental compliance.

Senegal: The Francophone Gateway

In July 2025, Senegal became the fourth African nation to join the Artemis Accords. This event was significant as Senegal is the first Francophone country on the continent to do so, broadening the Accords’ reach beyond the Anglophone sphere. The Senegalese Space Study Agency drives the nation’s space policy.

Senegal’s entry into the Artemis coalition reflects its growing prominence in the regional space sector. The country has invested in small satellite technology, with the launch of GAINDESAT-1A marking a milestone in its technical capacity. The collaboration with the United States provides Senegal with essential support in satellite operations and data processing.

The geographic location of Senegal, on the westernmost point of the African mainland, makes it an attractive partner for space tracking and communications. By integrating into the Artemis network, Senegal positions itself as a potential host for ground station infrastructure, facilitating data transmission for missions traversing the Atlantic.

The Counterbalance: The International Lunar Research Station

While the Artemis Accords expand their footprint, the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) presents a competing vision. Led by the China National Space Administration, the ILRS invites nations to collaborate on a permanent lunar base. This initiative has gained traction among African nations that maintain strong economic and political ties with Beijing.

Egypt and Ethiopia

Egypt and Ethiopia have formally aligned with the ILRS. The Egyptian Space Agency (EgSA) collaborates closely with Chinese partners on satellite assembly, integration, and testing (AIT) facilities. Egypt’s hosting of the African Space Agency headquarters in Cairo further cements its influential role. By joining the ILRS, Egypt secures access to Chinese launch vehicles and lunar exploration technology, which complements its national development goals.

Ethiopia, similarly, benefits from Chinese investment in its space infrastructure. The launch of ETRSS-1, Ethiopia’s first satellite, was supported by China. Alignment with the ILRS ensures continued support for Ethiopia’s space ambitions, which focus on climate monitoring and agricultural planning.

South Africa: A Complex Dual Strategy

South Africa occupies a unique and complex position. As a member of the BRICS bloc, it has deepened its cooperation with China and Russia, signing a Memorandum of Understanding to participate in the ILRS. However, South Africa maintains robust technical cooperation with the United States.

The South African National Space Agency (SANSA) manages a vital ground station at Hartebeesthoek. In 2024, SANSA finalized an agreement with NASA to build a new antenna facility at Matjiesfontein. This site will be part of NASA’s Lunar Exploration Ground Sites (LEGS) network, providing essential communications support for Artemis missions.

This dual approach allows South Africa to maximize the benefits of its geographic advantage and technical expertise. It provides tracking services to the US-led Artemis missions while simultaneously participating in the governance and scientific planning of the China-led ILRS. South Africa’s strategy illustrates that African nations can decouple political alignment from technical cooperation, engaging with competing powers to serve their national interests.

Economic Drivers of African Space Policy

The primary driver for African nations joining international space frameworks is economic development. The global space economy is projected to grow significantly, and African states seek to capture a portion of this value chain.

Downstream Applications

For most African signatories, the immediate value of space lies in downstream applications – the use of space data to solve terrestrial problems.

• Agriculture: Satellite imagery enables precision farming, crop yield estimation, and drought monitoring. This is vital for food security in Nigeria and Rwanda.
• Disaster Management: Real-time data helps mitigate the impact of floods and cyclones. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs facilitates the use of such data, but direct partnerships through the Accords streamline access.
• Connectivity: Communication satellites like Angola’s Angosat-2 provide internet access to remote areas, enabling telemedicine, e-learning, and digital banking.

Upstream Ambitions

While downstream applications dominate, ambitions for upstream activities – manufacturing and launch – are growing. Nigeria and South Africa possess the industrial base to manufacture satellite components. Collaboration with established space agencies through the Artemis Accords or ILRS provides the necessary technology transfer to mature these industries.

Comparative Analysis of Key African Players

The following table outlines the strategic positioning of key African nations within the current space governance landscape.

Challenges and Sovereignty Concerns

Despite the benefits, the alignment with external powers raises concerns regarding sovereignty and dependence. African critics argue that the Artemis Accords and the ILRS could replicate colonial dynamics, where African nations serve as resource providers or junior partners rather than equal stakeholders.

The emphasis on “safety zones” and resource extraction in the Artemis Accords has sparked debate about the privatization of the lunar surface. African legal scholars question how these provisions align with the principle of the “common heritage of mankind” enshrined in the Moon Treaty , although few major space powers have ratified that specific treaty.

Furthermore, the financial barrier to entry remains high. Maintaining a space program requires sustained government funding, which competes with other pressing developmental priorities like healthcare and infrastructure. Critics argue that without a robust indigenous private sector, African space agencies will remain dependent on foreign aid and technical assistance, limiting their strategic autonomy.

Workforce Development and STEM Education

A significant, though less tangible, benefit of the Artemis Accords is the impact on education. The partnership with NASA and other signatory agencies opens doors for African students and researchers. Programs that facilitate exchanges between African universities and US institutions help to stem the “brain drain” by creating high-tech opportunities within the continent.

In Nigeria and Rwanda, space education programs are integrated into the national STEM curriculum. The visibility of the Artemis program serves as an inspirational tool, encouraging young people to pursue careers in science and engineering. This workforce development is essential for the long-term sustainability of the African space sector. By building a cadre of local experts, these nations reduce their reliance on foreign consultants and contractors.

Summary

The inclusion of Rwanda, Nigeria, Angola, and Senegal in the Artemis Accords marks a pivotal moment in the history of African space exploration. It signals that African nations are active participants in the governance of outer space, leveraging their geopolitical weight to secure developmental benefits. While the continent remains a contested space between the US-led Artemis bloc and the China-led ILRS, African governments are displaying increasing sophistication in their diplomatic maneuvering.

South Africa’s ability to host NASA infrastructure while maintaining membership in the ILRS demonstrates a pragmatic approach that prioritizes national interest over rigid bloc allegiance. As the cost of access to space decreases and the utility of satellite data increases, more African nations will likely define their space strategies. The decisions made today regarding international partnerships will determine the extent to which Africa benefits from the emerging lunar economy and the broader industrialization of space.