Over 50 years after the historic Apollo 11 mission first landed astronauts on the lunar surface, NASA is preparing to return humans to the moon through the Artemis program. However, despite technological advancements, landing on the moon remains an immensely complex and hazardous endeavor. Here are the top 10 challenges that must be overcome to successfully land astronauts on the moon once again.
- Lack of atmosphere
The moon’s extremely thin atmosphere prevents the use of parachutes to slow down the spacecraft during descent. Instead, the entire landing sequence must be performed using rocket engines alone, requiring precise throttle control and fuel management to achieve a gentle touchdown. - Rugged, crater-filled terrain
The lunar surface is covered in craters, boulders, and uneven terrain, with few flat areas suitable for landing, especially in the unexplored south polar region targeted by Artemis. The landing system must be capable of hazard avoidance to find a safe touchdown point. - Lack of GPS and navigation aids
There is no GPS network around the moon to assist with precision landing. The spacecraft must rely on inertial measurement units, radar/lidar, and cameras to determine its position and velocity relative to the surface during descent. - Long-distance remote control is impossible
The 1.3 second communications delay between Earth and the moon makes it impossible to control the spacecraft remotely from the ground. The landing must be performed autonomously by the spacecraft computer, with the astronauts monitoring and ready to take over manual control if needed. - Unique lighting conditions
The Apollo landings took place in the well-lit equatorial regions, but Artemis aims to explore the permanently shadowed south pole crater where ice deposits are thought to exist. The low sun angles will cast long shadows, distorting visual navigation cues during the final approach. - Plume surface interactions
The rocket engine exhaust plumes can kick up dust and gravel which may damage the spacecraft or other assets already on the surface. Understanding plume-surface interactions is critical for multi-mission sustainability. - Malfunctions and system failures
As the Apollo and recent robotic missions have shown, even after extensive testing, critical systems like the computer, radar, engine or fuel lines can malfunction at the worst possible time. Astronauts need the training and tools to troubleshoot problems on the fly. - Low fuel margins
The weight constraints and distance of the journey mean there is little margin for error or extra fuel. Issues like inaccurate landing site prediction or hovering to find a safe spot can quickly deplete reserves, as happened on Apollo 11. - Physiological impacts on crew
The astronauts will be subject to high G-forces, vibrations, and stress during the descent after days in microgravity. Spacesuits limit dexterity and visibility. Maintaining situational awareness to make quick decisions after this is challenging. - Unique spacecraft configurations
The Artemis landers will use different designs and propulsion systems than Apollo. New vehicles like SpaceX’s Starship are still in development and will have limited testing in lunar conditions before crew flights. Perfecting new spacecraft is a challenge.
Returning humans to the moon is a monumental challenge, but one that NASA and its commercial partners are working hard to overcome. Solving these ten technical challenges is key to the next giant leap.
