A Comprehensive Review of China‘s Land and Sea Launch Infrastructure

China’s Gateways to Space

China’s space launch infrastructure is more than a collection of concrete pads and assembly buildings; it’s a dynamic, geographically dispersed ecosystem that mirrors the nation’s evolving strategic ambitions. From secretive, security-oriented bases carved out of the remote inland during the Cold War to modern, capacity-focused spaceports on its southern coast and mobile platforms upon the open sea, this network is the physical foundation upon which all of China’s space activities are built. The four primary land-based spaceports – Jiuquan, Taiyuan, Xichang, and Wenchang – each represent a distinct era and a specialized function within the national program. The recent emergence of maritime launch capabilities marks a new frontier, adding unprecedented flexibility and resilience. Together, this comprehensive infrastructure enables a full spectrum of missions, from placing astronauts aboard the Tiangong space station and sending robotic probes to the Moon and Mars to deploying vast constellations of commercial satellites and ensuring national security.

The historical trajectory of this infrastructure tells a compelling story of strategic adaptation. The initial placement of launch sites deep within the country’s interior was a decision dictated by the geopolitical anxieties of the mid-20th century, prioritizing security and concealment above all else. This choice imposed a fundamental logistical constraint: a reliance on railway transport that limited the diameter of rockets and, by extension, their power. The subsequent and deliberate shift toward the coast represents one of the most significant strategic pivots in the history of China’s space program. This move was not merely a matter of convenience; it was a necessary precondition for breaking free of old limitations and unleashing a new generation of heavy-lift rockets. This transition from an inland, defensive posture to a coastal, outward-looking one is the physical manifestation of China’s transformation from a regional space participant into a global space power, with ambitions that now extend across the solar system.

The Strategic Foundation: The Inland Spaceports

The bedrock of China’s space program was forged in the vast, sparsely populated interior of the country. The three original spaceports – Jiuquan, Taiyuan, and Xichang – were born from the “Third Front” campaign of the 1960s and 70s, a massive strategic initiative to develop industrial and national defense infrastructure in China’s rugged heartland, safe from potential invasion. Their locations were chosen not for optimal launch trajectories or logistical ease, but for security and secrecy. For decades, these inland sites exclusively served China’s ascent into space, each developing a unique specialization dictated by its geography and the evolving needs of the state. Before examining each in detail, a comparative overview illustrates their distinct roles within the national launch architecture.

Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center: The Cradle of China’s Space Program

Nestled in the desolate expanse of the Gobi Desert, the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center is the oldest and most storied of China’s spaceports. It is the historic heart of the nation’s space endeavors, a place where foundational missile technology was honed and where the country’s greatest space achievements, including its first satellite launch and every single crewed mission, have begun their journey to the heavens.

History and Strategic Purpose

Jiuquan’s story begins in secrecy and strategic necessity. Its construction commenced in 1958, a time of intense Cold War tension. China required a secure, isolated location to develop and test its nascent ballistic missile capabilities, far from prying eyes. The chosen site, a vast and remote area straddling the provinces of Inner Mongolia and Gansu, was perfect. Initially known as Base 20 or the Northwest Missile Range, its primary purpose was military. Western intelligence referred to it as the “Shuang Cheng Tzu Missile and Space Centre.” The name “Jiuquan,” taken from a city over 200 kilometers away, was a deliberate misnomer, a common Cold War tactic to obscure the true location of sensitive facilities.

While its roots are in military rocketry, the vision for Jiuquan quickly expanded toward the cosmos. As the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union unfolded, China was determined not to be left behind. The facility evolved from a missile proving ground into a space launch facility. On April 24, 1970, this transformation was announced to the world when a modified intermediate-range ballistic missile, designated the Long March 1, lifted off from Jiuquan carrying Dong Fang Hong 1, China’s first satellite. The satellite successfully entered orbit and broadcast the patriotic song “The East is Red,” a symbolic declaration that China had become the fifth nation to independently achieve spaceflight.

Since that historic day, Jiuquan has remained a workhorse of the Chinese space program, primarily launching Earth-observation and military reconnaissance satellites into Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Its most prestigious role was cemented in the 1990s when it was selected as the exclusive site for China’s human spaceflight program. A new, state-of-the-art launch complex was built specifically for this purpose. From the first uncrewed Shenzhou test flight in 1999 to Yang Liwei’s historic mission in 2003 and the subsequent launches of astronauts to build and occupy the Tiangong space station, every Chinese taikonaut has begun their journey from the Gobi Desert. This exclusive role in the highly visible and prestigious crewed program underscores Jiuquan’s continued centrality. The immense investment in specialized infrastructure and the decades of accumulated operational expertise at the site create a form of strategic inertia; moving the human spaceflight program elsewhere would be prohibitively expensive and would discard a unique repository of institutional knowledge.

Location and Climate

Jiuquan is situated at approximately 41°N latitude, covering an immense area of 2,800 square kilometers. Its location in an inland, arid desert climate is a major operational advantage. The weather is generally stable with clear skies, providing around 300 days a year suitable for launch activities. The vast, unpopulated downrange areas to the east provide safe corridors for spent rocket stages to fall. The main living and administrative area, known as Dongfeng Space City, is a self-contained community with housing for up to 20,000 people, including technicians, military personnel, and their families.

Launch Facilities and Infrastructure

Jiuquan’s launch infrastructure is a mix of historical relics and modern, active facilities, reflecting its long and evolving history.

The earliest facilities, such as Launch Complex 3, were rudimentary pads used for short- and medium-range ballistic missile tests in the 1960s. Launch Complex 2, built in the 1960s, was more advanced and consisted of two pads, “5020” and “138.” Pad 5020 was used for the launch of Dong Fang Hong 1. These older complexes were deactivated in the 1990s and have since been preserved as historical sites and tourist attractions, monuments to the program’s early days.

The modern heart of Jiuquan is the South Launch Site, also known as Launch Complex 43. This area contains the two active launch pads:

• Pad 921 (SLS-1): Known as the “Shenzhou Pad,” this is arguably the most important launch pad in China. It is exclusively dedicated to the human-rated Long March 2F rocket, which launches the Shenzhou crewed spacecraft and modules for the Tiangong space station. The facility, which became operational in the late 1990s, is built around a highly efficient “three verticals” processing flow: vertical assembly, vertical testing, and vertical transport. The rocket and spacecraft are stacked and checked out in a massive 93-meter-tall Vertical Assembly Building. The entire stack is then rolled out vertically atop a 750-ton mobile launcher platform along a 1.5-kilometer rail track to the pad. This process minimizes on-pad time, enhances reliability, and is a hallmark of modern launch operations worldwide.
• Pad 603 (SLS-2): Commissioned in 2003, this pad is a more conventional facility used for launching uncrewed satellites into LEO. It supports a range of rockets, including the Long March 2C, 2D, and 4B. Unlike Pad 921’s mobile system, rockets here are assembled vertically on the launch pad itself, with a crane hoisting each stage into place.

In a clear sign of pragmatic adaptation, Jiuquan has also become a hub for China’s growing commercial space industry. The government’s decision in 2014 to allow private investment in the space sector led to a surge of new rocket companies. Rather than building entirely new spaceports, these companies were given access to Jiuquan’s vast territory and existing support infrastructure. Several new, simpler launch pads have been constructed within the secure perimeter of the base, dedicated to these commercial ventures. These include:

• LS-95: A launch area with two pads that has hosted dozens of launches for small, often solid-fueled rockets like the Kuaizhou-1A, Ceres-1, and Hyperbola-1.
• LS-96: A dedicated pad operated by the private company LandSpace for its methalox-fueled Zhuque-2 rocket.
• LS-120: A pad used by Space Pioneer for its Tianlong-2 rocket.
• LS-130: A pad used by the state-owned commercial entity CAS Space for its Kinetica 1 rocket.

This integration of commercial activities demonstrates a clever leveraging of a legacy asset. It provides the new companies with a secure and well-supported launch location while bringing them under the state’s operational umbrella, maximizing the return on decades of investment in this desert outpost.

Missions and Launch Vehicles

Jiuquan specializes in launching payloads into lower and medium Earth orbits with large orbital inclination angles. Its history is filled with groundbreaking missions, including China’s first missile, first satellite, first recoverable satellite, and every crewed mission.

The workhorse of Jiuquan is the Long March 2F rocket, a human-rated vehicle renowned for its reliability. It is equipped with a launch escape system to protect the crew in case of an anomaly during ascent and is used exclusively for launching Shenzhou spacecraft and space station elements from Pad 921.

For uncrewed satellite launches, the primary vehicles are the Long March 2C, Long March 2D, and Long March 4B/C. These reliable rockets have deployed numerous satellites, including the Shijian series of experimental satellites, Yaogan reconnaissance satellites, and various scientific payloads.

The commercial pads at Jiuquan host a growing variety of new rockets. These are mostly small, solid-propellant vehicles designed for rapid and low-cost deployment of small satellite constellations. They include Galactic Energy’s Ceres-1, i-Space’s Hyperbola-1, and the state-owned Kuaizhou and Jielong series. The launch of LandSpace’s liquid-fueled Zhuque-2 from Jiuquan also marked a major milestone for the commercial sector.

Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center: The Polar Gateway

Tucked away in the mountainous terrain of northern China’s Shanxi Province, the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center is a specialized facility with a singular focus: providing access to polar and Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO). While less famous than Jiuquan, Taiyuan is the indispensable gateway for the constant stream of Earth observation data that underpins China’s modern economy, environmental monitoring, and national security apparatus.

History and Strategic Purpose

Established in 1968, Taiyuan was the second spaceport built during the “Third Front” era. Like Jiuquan, its location was chosen for security. Concealed in the Lüliang Mountains at an elevation of 1,500 meters, it was initially a military installation known as Base 25, primarily for testing intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles. Western intelligence referred to it as the “Wuzhai Missile and Space Centre.”

Its transition to a space launch facility began in the late 1980s. Its geographical location in northern China makes it ideally suited for launching rockets southward on trajectories that achieve the near-polar, north-south orbits required for SSO missions. The first orbital launch from Taiyuan took place on September 7, 1988, when a Long March 4A rocket successfully placed the Fengyun-1A weather satellite into an 800-kilometer SSO.

This specialization in Sun-Synchronous Orbits is not merely a technical footnote; it is a capability of immense strategic value. An SSO is a unique orbit where a satellite passes over any given point on Earth at the same local solar time each day. This means that the lighting conditions – the angle of the sun and the length of shadows – are nearly identical in every image the satellite captures of that location. This consistency is essential for change detection. Whether monitoring the health of crops, tracking the pace of urban sprawl, measuring polar ice melt, or observing military deployments, the ability to compare images taken weeks, months, or years apart under the same lighting is fundamental. Taiyuan, as the primary launch site for these satellites, is therefore the physical origin point for the foundational data layer that informs China’s agricultural policy, urban planning, climate science, and military intelligence.

Launch Facilities and Infrastructure

Rocket components are typically transported to Taiyuan by rail and then moved by road to the technical area for processing. The launch facilities at Taiyuan consist of several distinct complexes:

• Launch Complex 7 (LC7): This was the original launch pad at Taiyuan, becoming operational in 1979. For nearly three decades, it was the only pad used for space launches, supporting the Long March 2 and Long March 4 families of rockets. After a major modernization in 2008, its role has shifted. It is now primarily used for military purposes, including tests of ballistic missiles and advanced systems like the WU-14 hypersonic glide vehicle.
• Launch Complex 9 (LC9): Becoming operational in 2008, LC9 is now the main launch pad for SSO satellite missions at Taiyuan. It features a fixed umbilical tower and underground propellant storage facilities and supports launches of the Long March 2C, 2D, and 4B/C rockets.
• Launch Site 16 (LC16): Constructed around 2014, this is a modern and unique facility dedicated to the new-generation Long March 6 rocket. It eschews the traditional fixed tower. Instead, the rocket is prepared horizontally in a processing building, rolled out on a large transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) vehicle, raised to a vertical position on the pad, fueled, and launched. This “clean pad” concept allows for faster launch preparations and a more streamlined process. A newer pad, Launch Site 9A, was later built to accommodate the larger Long March 6A.

Missions and Launch Vehicles

Taiyuan’s launch manifest is dominated by missions destined for Sun-Synchronous Orbit. It has been the launch site for many of China’s Fengyun meteorological satellites, which provide critical data for weather forecasting. It also launches Earth resource satellites, such as the Ziyuan series and the China-Brazil Earth Resource Satellites (CBERS), a successful international collaboration. A significant portion of its launches are also dedicated to the Yaogan series of remote sensing satellites, which are widely believed to serve military reconnaissance purposes.

In the 1990s, Taiyuan played a role in the international commercial launch market. Between 1997 and 1999, a series of Long March 2C rockets launched from the site successfully deployed 12 satellites for the Motorola Iridium global communications constellation.

The primary launch vehicles at Taiyuan are:

• Long March 4 Series (4A, 4B, 4C): For decades, this family of three-stage rockets has been the workhorse for launching heavier SSO payloads from Taiyuan.
• Long March 2D: A reliable two-stage rocket used for a variety of LEO and SSO missions.
• Long March 6 and 6A: These are new-generation rockets that use a more environmentally friendly combination of liquid oxygen and kerosene as propellant. The Long March 6 is a small-lift vehicle designed for rapidly launching small satellites, while the Long March 6A is a medium-lift variant that adds four solid-fuel side boosters to the core stage, significantly increasing its payload capacity to SSO.

Xichang Satellite Launch Center: Reaching for Higher Orbits

Concealed within a subtropical mountain valley in southwestern Sichuan province, the Xichang Satellite Launch Center is China’s primary gateway to high-altitude orbits. For nearly four decades, it has been the critical site for launching the communications and navigation satellites that connect the nation and project its influence globally. Xichang represents a bridge between the old and new eras of China’s space program – a facility born of Cold War security concerns that became the main tool for the country’s entry into the global commercial space market.

History and Strategic Purpose

The genesis of Xichang dates to the late 1960s, driven by the same strategic logic that created Jiuquan and Taiyuan. Amid worsening relations with the Soviet Union, military planners sought a launch site even more secure and remote than Jiuquan for high-value missions, including the then-planned Shuguang human spaceflight program. After extensive surveys, a valley near Xichang city was selected, and construction began in 1970 under the codename “Project 7210.” The site was built for survivability, with key facilities like propellant storage tanks hidden in underground bunkers and mountain caves.

While the original human spaceflight program was cancelled, construction resumed in the late 1970s for a new strategic purpose. Xichang’s location at a latitude of 28.2°N, significantly closer to the equator than Jiuquan or Taiyuan, gives it a distinct advantage for launching satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO). GTO is the highly elliptical path used to place satellites into their final Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) 35,786 kilometers above the equator, where they orbit at the same speed as the Earth’s rotation and appear to hover over a fixed point. This orbit is ideal for communications, broadcast, and some weather satellites.

The first launch from Xichang occurred on April 8, 1984, when a Long March 3 rocket successfully placed an experimental communications satellite into orbit. This mission established Xichang’s primary role, and it has since been the launch site for the vast majority of China’s geostationary satellites. It was also the exclusive launch site for the deployment of the entire BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, China’s global answer to the American GPS.

Xichang’s history also illustrates its role as a transitional asset. It was a product of the old, security-first mindset, but its geographic advantage made it the natural choice when China decided to enter the international commercial launch market in the 1980s and 90s. It became the face of China’s space program to the outside world. this period was marred by a catastrophic failure on February 15, 1996, when a Long March 3B rocket carrying the Intelsat 708 satellite veered off course moments after liftoff and crashed into a nearby village, causing an official death toll of six. The accident highlighted the inherent risks of launching from an inland site with populated areas nearby. This safety concern, coupled with the persistent logistical bottleneck of rail transport limiting rocket size, ultimately underscored the need for a modern coastal spaceport, leading to the development of Wenchang. With Wenchang now operational, Xichang is expected to gradually transition into a backup role, focusing primarily on military missions.

Launch Facilities and Infrastructure

The Xichang launch center is connected to the national transportation network by a dedicated airport capable of receiving large cargo aircraft like the Antonov An-124, as well as by highway and a branch railway line. The launch facilities are located in a valley about 65 kilometers from Xichang city. The center operates two main launch complexes:

• Launch Complex 2 (LC-2): This complex became operational in 1990 to support heavier rockets. Its defining feature is a 97-meter-tall mobile service tower that rolls on tracks. For launch preparations, the tower envelops the rocket at the pad, providing platforms for assembly, checkout, and payload integration. Hours before launch, the massive structure is rolled back to a safe distance.
• Launch Complex 3 (LC-3): This was the original launch pad at Xichang, operational since 1984. It uses a more traditional fixed umbilical tower. The rocket is assembled vertically on the launch platform, with a crane at the top of the tower hoisting each stage and the payload into place. LC-3 was completely demolished and rebuilt in the mid-2000s with upgraded systems to support the heavier rockets needed for China’s first lunar exploration missions.

Missions and Launch Vehicles

Xichang’s mission is almost entirely focused on high-energy orbits. Its primary task is launching satellites to GTO for telecommunications and broadcasting, for both domestic and international customers. Its other signature role has been the deployment of the BeiDou constellation, which required launches into both GTO and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). Xichang was also the starting point for the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, launching the Chang’e 1 and Chang’e 2 lunar orbiters. In a demonstration of its military capabilities, a missile launched from Xichang in January 2007 successfully destroyed a defunct Chinese weather satellite in orbit, an event that was widely viewed as an anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon test.

The rockets launched from Xichang are specifically designed for high-energy missions. The workhorses are the Long March 3 family (3A, 3B/E, 3C). These three-stage rockets are distinguished by their cryogenic third stage, which burns a high-performance combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. This advanced propulsion is what gives them the power needed to efficiently deliver heavy payloads to GTO. The Long March 2E, a heavy-lift variant of the Long March 2 with four liquid-fueled strap-on boosters, was also launched from Xichang in the 1990s.

The Modern Nexus: The Coastal and Maritime Frontier

The 21st century has marked a definitive shift in China’s space launch strategy, moving from the secure but constrained interior to the open and accessible coast. This new era is defined by infrastructure designed for maximum capability, efficiency, and flexibility, breaking free from the limitations that shaped the first 50 years of the program. The Wenchang Space Launch Site on Hainan Island and the development of mobile sea-based launch platforms represent the modern nexus of China’s space ambitions, providing the power and versatility needed for space station construction, deep space exploration, and a high-cadence commercial launch market.

Wenchang Space Launch Site: A New Era of Heavy Lift

Located on the northeast coast of the tropical island province of Hainan, the Wenchang Space Launch Site is China’s fourth and newest spaceport. Inaugurated in 2016, it is more than just an additional facility; it is the physical key that has unlocked the full potential of China’s modern space program. Its construction was a deliberate, long-term investment in the foundational capability – heavy-lift rocketry – that separates regional space players from true global space powers. Without Wenchang, China’s large modular space station, its independent missions to Mars, and its plans for a crewed lunar landing would not be possible.

History and Strategic Rationale

The idea of a launch site on Hainan Island, China’s southernmost territory, is not new. Scientists and engineers recognized the advantages of a near-equatorial location as early as the 1970s. during the Cold War, placing such a high-value national asset in the South China Sea, an area of significant US and Soviet military presence, was deemed too strategically risky.

With the end of the Cold War and a changing geopolitical landscape, the idea was revived. The Hainan provincial government lobbied for the project, seeing its potential to boost the local economy and tourism. More importantly, China’s space program had reached a critical inflection point. Its ambitions for a permanent space station and missions to the Moon and Mars required rockets far larger and more powerful than any it had previously built. These new rockets were too wide to be transported on the national railway network to the existing inland launch sites. A coastal launch site with access to sea transport was no longer a preference; it was a necessity.

After extensive feasibility studies, the project was officially approved in 2007, and construction began in 2009. The first launch from Wenchang took place on June 25, 2016. The strategic rationale for its location is threefold and represents a complete reversal of the logic that governed the inland sites:

• Equatorial Advantage: Wenchang is located at a low latitude of 19°N. The Earth rotates fastest at the equator, at a speed of about 1,670 kilometers per hour. By launching eastward from a site close to the equator, a rocket gets a significant “free” velocity boost from the planet’s own rotation. This means the rocket needs less propellant to reach orbital velocity. The fuel saved can be used to carry a heavier payload or can translate into a longer operational lifespan for a satellite, as it will have more onboard fuel for station-keeping maneuvers. For a geostationary satellite, this can add up to three years of service life.
• Logistical Breakthrough: The most important advantage of Wenchang is its coastal location. This allows massive rocket components to be transported by sea from their manufacturing facility in the northern port city of Tianjin. This completely bypasses the 3.35-meter diameter restriction imposed by railway tunnels. It enabled the development of China’s new-generation heavy-lift rockets, the 5-meter-diameter Long March 5 and Long March 7.
• Enhanced Safety: Launching from a coastal site allows for trajectories that fly out over the open ocean. Spent rocket stages and other debris fall harmlessly into the South Pacific, eliminating the risk to populated areas that has long been a concern for launches from the inland sites.

Launch Facilities and Infrastructure

Wenchang is a thoroughly modern spaceport, built from the ground up to support the largest and most complex rockets in China’s fleet. It features two primary launch complexes:

• Launch Complex 101 (LC-101): This massive complex is designed to handle the Long March 5 family, China’s heavy-lift launch vehicle. It is centered around a towering 99.4-meter-tall Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), where the rocket and its payload are vertically integrated. The entire 800-plus-ton stack is then rolled out on a Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) along a 2.8-kilometer-long, 20-meter-wide rail track to the launch pad. The pad itself features a fixed umbilical tower to service the rocket and is equipped with four enormous lightning rods. It is also the first Chinese launch pad to incorporate a powerful sound suppression system, which deluges the launch platform with massive quantities of water at ignition to dampen the destructive acoustic energy generated by the rocket’s powerful engines.
• Launch Complex 201 (LC-201): This complex is built to support the medium-lift Long March 7 and Long March 8 rockets. Its facilities are architecturally similar to LC-101 but slightly smaller in scale, with its VAB standing at 96.6 meters tall.

Missions and Launch Vehicles

Wenchang is the exclusive home of China’s new-generation rockets, which use cleaner and more efficient propellants – liquid oxygen/kerosene and liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen – instead of the toxic hypergolic fuels used by many older Long March models.

The missions launched from Wenchang are China’s most ambitious and high-profile:

• Space Station Construction: The Long March 5B, a variant of the Long March 5 designed to lift heavy payloads to LEO, was used to launch all three of the 22-ton modules of the Tiangong space station: the Tianhe core module, the Wentian lab module, and the Mengtian lab module.
• Cargo Resupply: The Long March 7 is used to launch the Tianzhou automated cargo spacecraft on regular resupply missions to the Tiangong space station.
• Deep Space Exploration: The standard Long March 5 has launched China’s flagship interplanetary missions. In 2020, it launched the Tianwen-1 mission, which successfully sent an orbiter, lander, and rover to Mars in a single flight. Later that year, it launched the Chang’e 5 lunar probe, which successfully collected samples from the Moon and returned them to Earth.
• Geostationary Satellites: The Long March 7A and Long March 8 are used to deploy satellites to GTO, a role Wenchang is gradually taking over from Xichang.

The successful operation of Wenchang and its associated heavy-lift rockets has been the critical enabler for China’s ability to operate as a top-tier space power, capable of building and sustaining a human presence in LEO and conducting complex robotic missions across the solar system.

The Eastern Aerospace Port and Sea Launch Capabilities

While Wenchang represents the pinnacle of fixed, land-based infrastructure, China is simultaneously developing a complementary and highly flexible capability: sea-based launch. By taking to the water, China’s space program can overcome the geographical limitations of its mainland territory, increase its launch cadence, and enhance the resilience of its access to space. The hub of this new maritime frontier is the Eastern Aerospace Port in Haiyang, a coastal city in Shandong province.

Strategic Rationale for Sea Launch

Launching rockets from a mobile platform at sea offers a suite of strategic advantages that are impossible to achieve with fixed land sites:

• Unmatched Orbital Flexibility: A mobile sea platform can be positioned anywhere in international waters. This allows launch operators to select the absolute optimal point on the globe for a given mission. For launches to equatorial orbits, the platform can sail directly to the equator, maximizing the velocity boost from the Earth’s rotation and thereby maximizing the rocket’s payload capacity. This provides access to any orbital inclination with maximum efficiency.
• Complete Debris Safety: The issue of spent rocket stages falling on land, a persistent problem for China’s inland spaceports, is completely eliminated. By conducting launches far out at sea, all debris falls harmlessly into the ocean, removing any risk to populated areas.
• Increased Launch Cadence: China’s four land-based spaceports are busy facilities with crowded launch schedules. Sea launch platforms provide an additional “pad,” helping to alleviate these bottlenecks and enabling a higher overall national launch frequency. This is particularly important for deploying large satellite constellations that require dozens of launches in a short period.
• Strategic Redundancy and Responsiveness: A mobile launch capability provides a resilient backup for the nation’s access to space. If a land-based spaceport were to be damaged or otherwise rendered unavailable, sea launch ensures that critical missions could still proceed. Furthermore, solid-fuel rockets launched from sea can be prepared relatively quickly, offering a responsive launch capability.

The Haiyang Hub

Recognizing these advantages, China has invested in creating a dedicated homeport and industrial base for its sea launch operations. The Eastern Aerospace Port in Haiyang is envisioned as a comprehensive aerospace hub. The project is structured around a “one port and four centers” concept: a central sea launch homeport supported by integrated centers for rocket research and development, satellite payload manufacturing, sea launch platform development, and satellite data applications. This creates a vertically integrated ecosystem where rockets can be built, tested, integrated with their payloads, and loaded onto their launch vessel all in one location, streamlining the entire process.

Launch Platforms and Vessels

China’s sea launch operations have so far utilized several modified civilian vessels as mobile launch platforms. These are typically large deck barges or heavy-lift ships that are retrofitted to securely hold a rocket and its launch equipment. Notable vessels that have been used include the De Bo 3, the semi-submersible barge Tai Rui, and the DeFu-15002. These platforms have been used for launches by both state-owned and commercial rocket companies, demonstrating the dual-use nature of this capability.

Missions and Launch Vehicles

To date, sea launches have focused on solid-propellant rockets, which are simpler, more rugged, and do not require the complex handling of cryogenic liquid fuels, making them better suited to the maritime environment.

China conducted its first-ever sea launch on June 5, 2019, when a Long March 11H rocket lifted off from a barge in the Yellow Sea. The “H” in its designation stands for haiyang, the Chinese word for “ocean.” The Long March 11, a four-stage solid rocket, has since conducted multiple successful sea launches.

The Smart Dragon 3 (Jielong-3), another solid-fueled rocket from a state-owned enterprise, is also designed for sea launch and has flown several successful missions.

The commercial sector has also enthusiastically embraced sea launch. In September 2023, Beijing-based Galactic Energy became the first private Chinese company to conduct a sea launch, successfully sending its Ceres-1 solid rocket to orbit from a mobile platform. In January 2024, the startup Orienspace made a spectacular debut with its Gravity-1 rocket, the most powerful solid-fueled commercial rocket in China, which also launched from a ship at sea. This rapid adoption by both state and commercial players underscores the strategic importance of sea launch in China’s comprehensive space strategy.

The Commercial Space Revolution

Parallel to the state-led modernization of its launch infrastructure, China is experiencing a dynamic and rapidly expanding commercial space revolution. Since the government opened the sector to private investment in 2014, a vibrant ecosystem of startups has emerged, developing innovative launch vehicles and competing to serve the growing global demand for satellite deployment. This new commercial force is not operating in isolation; it is deeply integrated into the national strategy, leveraging state-owned launch sites and benefiting from government policies designed to foster a domestic equivalent to the American “New Space” movement.

Policy and Proliferation: Fostering a Private Launch Sector

The rise of China’s commercial space sector is the result of deliberate top-down policy decisions. Recognizing the potential for innovation and economic growth, and likely spurred by the successes of American companies like SpaceX, the Chinese government began to actively encourage private enterprise in the space industry. This strategy is often framed within the broader national policy of “military-civil fusion,” which seeks to leverage civilian technology and market efficiencies to advance national security objectives.

The support for this new sector comes in many forms. Provincial and municipal governments, particularly in cities like Beijing and Shanghai, have established industrial parks and offered significant financial incentives, including subsidies and low-interest loans, to attract space startups. State-led investment funds have become major sources of venture capital, guiding private companies toward technologies and capabilities that align with national strategic priorities, such as reusable rockets and satellite internet constellations.

The clearest signal of this support came when the commercial space industry was officially designated as one of the “new engines of economic growth” in the central government’s annual work reports. This high-level endorsement has galvanized the industry, leading to a proliferation of companies. Today, there are over 430 commercial space enterprises in China, including more than 20 focused on developing launch vehicles. This competitive landscape includes a mix of truly independent startups and “quasi-private” entities, which are commercial spin-offs from state-owned giants like the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) or have close ties to government institutions like the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).

Key Commercial Players and Their Rockets

While the field is crowded, a handful of leading companies have distinguished themselves through successful launches and technological innovation, often developing rockets that directly parallel Western trends in propulsion and reusability.

LandSpace

Based in Beijing, LandSpace is one of the most ambitious and technologically advanced of China’s commercial launch providers. After an initial failed attempt with a solid-fuel rocket, the company pivoted to developing a more advanced liquid-fueled engine. Its Zhuque-2 rocket is powered by liquid methane and liquid oxygen (methalox), a propellant combination favored for its high performance, cleaner burn, and suitability for reusable engines. On July 12, 2023, the second flight of the Zhuque-2 successfully reached orbit, making LandSpace the first company in the world to achieve this milestone with a methalox-powered rocket.

The company is now developing the Zhuque-3, a much larger, two-stage rocket made of stainless steel and designed for reusability. Its first stage is intended to perform vertical takeoffs and vertical landings (VTVL), much like SpaceX’s Falcon 9. With a planned payload capacity of over 12 tons to LEO in its reusable configuration, the Zhuque-3 represents a significant leap in capability for the commercial sector.

Galactic Energy

Galactic Energy has established itself as one of the most reliable and prolific commercial launch providers in China. Its workhorse is the Ceres-1, a four-stage, solid-propellant rocket. While small, with a payload capacity of about 400 kg to LEO, the Ceres-1 has achieved a high launch cadence from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. In a major milestone, Galactic Energy became the first Chinese private company to successfully launch a rocket from a sea platform in September 2023, demonstrating its operational flexibility.

Like its competitors, Galactic Energy is also pursuing reusability. The company is developing the Pallas-1, a medium-lift, two-stage rocket that will use kerosene and liquid oxygen. Its first stage is being designed for VTVL recovery, with the goal of significantly reducing launch costs.

i-Space

i-Space holds a historic place in China’s commercial space sector. On July 25, 2019, the company’s Hyperbola-1 rocket successfully reached orbit, making i-Space the first private Chinese firm to do so. The Hyperbola-1 is a small, four-stage solid-fuel rocket. following its successful debut, the company experienced a string of three consecutive launch failures, highlighting the immense challenges of rocket development.

After a period of reorganization and technical refinement, i-Space returned to flight with successful launches in 2023. The company is now focused on developing the Hyperbola-3, a large, reusable methalox-fueled rocket. Like LandSpace’s Zhuque-3, it is a two-stage vehicle with a VTVL first stage, positioning i-Space to compete in the medium-to-heavy lift market.

Orienspace

A newer entrant to the market, Orienspace made a powerful debut in January 2024 with the successful inaugural launch of its Gravity-1 rocket. The Gravity-1 is an all-solid-propellant vehicle, but it is significantly larger and more powerful than other commercial solid rockets. With a core stage and four large strap-on boosters, it can deliver up to 6,500 kg to LEO, making it the most powerful commercial rocket in China at the time of its launch. The mission was conducted from a sea platform, underscoring the growing importance of this launch method for the commercial sector. Orienspace is also planning to develop larger, liquid-fueled rockets in the future.

This rapidly evolving commercial landscape is summarized in the table below, which compares the key launch vehicles from these leading companies. The trend is clear: while initial success was often found with simpler solid-fuel rockets, the strategic focus across the industry is now firmly on developing larger, more capable, and reusable liquid-fueled rockets to compete in the global launch market.

The Support Network: Logistics and Global Reach

A successful space launch is the culmination of a vast and complex logistical and communications effort that spans the globe. The rockets themselves must be manufactured, assembled, and transported with precision to the launch pad, a process that has fundamentally shaped the geography of China’s space program. Once a rocket lifts off, a global network of ground stations and tracking ships springs into action, maintaining a constant link with the spacecraft to monitor its health, control its trajectory, and receive the valuable data it collects. This support network is the indispensable, and often unseen, backbone of China’s entire space enterprise.

From Factory to Pad: The Logistics Chain

The method of transporting a rocket from its factory to the launch site is not a minor detail; it is a primary strategic driver that dictates rocket design and launch site location. China’s program has evolved from a system constrained by land transport to one enabled by the sea.

Inland Transport: The Tyranny of the Railway

For the inland spaceports of Jiuquan, Taiyuan, and Xichang, the primary mode of long-distance transport for rocket components is the national railway network. Dedicated branch lines connect the main rail arteries to the technical centers within the spaceports. This reliance on rail imposes a severe physical constraint. The diameter of a rocket’s core stage is limited by the width of railway tunnels and bridges along the route. For China’s rail system, this effective limit is approximately 3.35 meters.

For decades, this logistical reality dictated the limits of Chinese rocket design. Engineers had to build the most powerful rockets possible within this 3.35-meter-diameter envelope. This led to the development of reliable and successful launch vehicle families like the Long March 2, 3, and 4, but it fundamentally prevented the creation of a true heavy-lift rocket capable of launching very large payloads. The final leg of the journey, from the nearest rail station to the launch complex, is completed by specialized trucks on dedicated highways.

Coastal Transport: The Freedom of the Sea

The development of the Wenchang Space Launch Site was conceived as the solution to this long-standing logistical problem. Its coastal location on Hainan Island opened up an entirely new transportation vector: the ocean. To service Wenchang, China built its new-generation rocket manufacturing facility in the northern coastal city of Tianjin. The oversized components of the 5-meter-diameter Long March 5 and Long March 7 rockets are transported from Tianjin to Hainan by a pair of specially designed cargo ships.

These vessels, the Yuanwang 21 and Yuanwang 22, are each 130 meters long and have a displacement of over 9,000 tons. They are essentially floating rocket transporters, equipped with climate-controlled holds to protect the sensitive components and heavy cranes for loading and unloading. The journey covers approximately 1,800 nautical miles, sailing from the Bohai Sea, through the Yellow Sea and East China Sea, and across the South China Sea to the Qinglan Seaport on Hainan. From the port, the components are transported a short distance by road to the Wenchang launch site. This sea-based logistics chain was the critical enabler that broke the 3.35-meter “tyranny of the railway,” allowing China to build the heavy-lift rockets necessary for its most ambitious 21st-century space projects.

Eyes on the Sky: The Global Tracking and Control Network

Once a rocket leaves the pad, continuous communication is essential. China has built a comprehensive, multi-layered telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) network to monitor its missions, from LEO to deep space.

Domestic and Global Ground Stations

The domestic network is anchored by two primary control centers: the Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center, which oversees crewed missions, and the Xi’an Satellite Control Center, which manages uncrewed satellites and probes. These centers receive data from a web of ground stations across China, including major facilities in Kashgar in the far west, Jiamusi in the northeast, and Sanya on Hainan Island. These stations use large parabolic antennas to track spacecraft as they pass overhead. For deep space missions, China also utilizes its massive radio telescopes, such as the 500-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST), to detect faint signals from probes millions of kilometers away.

To ensure global coverage, China has extended this network overseas. Through bilateral agreements, it has built or gained access to tracking stations in numerous countries across Latin America, Africa, and Asia. One of the most significant of these is the Espacio Lejano Station in Neuquén, Argentina, a deep space station with a large 35-meter antenna that gives China a critical tracking capability in the Southern Hemisphere. This global network ensures that China can maintain contact with its spacecraft at nearly all points in their orbits, a capability essential for both civilian science missions and military operations.

The Yuan Wang Fleet

Where gaps in ground station coverage exist – primarily over the vast expanses of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans – China deploys its fleet of Yuan Wang (“Far-Seeing”) space tracking ships. These large, distinctive vessels are floating command centers, packed with advanced radar, telemetry antennas, and satellite communication systems. Their role is to position themselves downrange from a launch site to track the rocket’s ascent and the spacecraft’s entry into orbit during the critical early phases of a mission when it is out of sight of land-based stations.

The Yuan Wang fleet has evolved through several generations. The first ships, Yuan Wang 1 and Yuan Wang 2, entered service in the late 1970s. The modern fleet consists of the third-generation vessels Yuan Wang 5, Yuan Wang 6, and Yuan Wang 7. These are large ships, over 220 meters long with displacements of around 25,000 tons, capable of operating at sea for months at a time. During high-profile missions like the Shenzhou crewed flights, the ships are strategically deployed across the globe – for example, one might be off the coast of Namibia, another in the South Pacific, and a third in the Indian Ocean – to create a continuous chain of communication with the spacecraft and its crew. This maritime tracking capability provides a flexible and indispensable layer to China’s global space monitoring and control infrastructure.

Future Trajectories

China’s launch infrastructure is not a static system; it is continuously expanding and evolving to support an increasingly ambitious national space strategy that looks toward a permanent presence on the Moon and human exploration of Mars. The next generation of launch vehicles and the upgrades to the ground infrastructure are being designed specifically to enable these future deep space endeavors. This forward-looking development is proceeding along two parallel tracks: a near-term, pragmatic approach to achieve a crewed lunar landing by 2030, and a long-term, revolutionary vision for sustainable, large-scale activity in deep space.

Infrastructure for Tomorrow’s Ambitions

The cornerstone of China’s future in space is the development of a new class of super heavy-lift rockets. These vehicles are essential for launching the massive hardware required for building bases on other worlds.

The Long March 9 Super Heavy-Lift Rocket

The Long March 9 is China’s answer to the historic American Saturn V and the modern SpaceX Starship. It is a colossal rocket, designed to be the most powerful launch vehicle ever built by China. Its design has evolved significantly over the years, but current plans call for a three-stage rocket standing approximately 114 meters tall with a core diameter of 10.6 meters. Its projected payload capacity is immense: up to 150 tons to Low Earth Orbit and 54 tons on a direct trajectory to the Moon.

Significantly, the Long March 9 is being designed with reusability in mind. The latest concepts feature a first stage powered by a cluster of advanced methalox engines, intended to perform a propulsive landing for recovery and reuse. This focus on reusability is a direct response to the new economics of spaceflight and is seen as essential for making long-term deep space exploration financially sustainable. The first flight of the Long March 9 is anticipated around 2033. To accommodate such a massive vehicle, a new, even larger launch complex will need to be constructed at the Wenchang Space Launch Site.

The Long March 10 for Crewed Lunar Missions

While the Long March 9 represents the long-term vision, China is developing another heavy-lift rocket, the Long March 10, to meet a more immediate political and strategic goal: landing Chinese astronauts on the Moon by 2030. The Long March 10 is a more conventional design, derived from the proven technologies of the Long March 5. It is a three-stage rocket capable of sending a payload of at least 27 tons to a trans-lunar injection orbit.

The current mission architecture for the crewed lunar landing involves two Long March 10 launches. One rocket will launch the Lanyue lunar lander, and a second will launch the Mengzhou crewed spacecraft. The two vehicles will then rendezvous and dock in lunar orbit before the crew transfers to the lander for the descent to the surface. This two-launch approach is a pragmatic and achievable method for meeting the 2030 deadline while the more revolutionary Long March 9 is still in development. This parallel development path provides a important redundancy to China’s lunar plans. The Long March 10 acts as the “sprint” vehicle to achieve the initial landing, while the Long March 9 is the “marathon” vehicle designed for the era of sustained presence that will follow.

Expansion and Upgrades

To support this increased activity, China’s ground infrastructure continues to expand. Plans are underway for a dedicated Wenchang Commercial Space Launch Site, to be built adjacent to the existing state-run facility. This will provide dedicated pads and processing facilities for the growing number of commercial companies, freeing up the main launch complexes for national missions. The Eastern Aerospace Port in Haiyang is also being built out to support a higher frequency of sea launches and potentially accommodate liquid-fueled rockets in the future, further diversifying China’s launch options.

Supporting Lunar and Martian Exploration

The development of this next-generation infrastructure is directly tied to China’s long-term scientific and exploration goals.

Lunar Base Requirements

China, in partnership with Russia and other nations, plans to establish an International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) at the Moon’s south pole in the 2030s. Building such a permanent outpost is a monumental undertaking that is entirely dependent on super heavy-lift launch capability. The Long March 9 is the key to this vision. Its ability to lift 50-ton payloads to the Moon will be required to transport the large habitat modules, power plants, rovers, and in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) equipment needed to construct and sustain the base. An expendable rocket like the Long March 10 would be prohibitively expensive for the dozens of launches required to build and supply a permanent base. The reusable Long March 9 is being designed to solve this cost and mass problem.

Mars Mission Requirements

Similarly, a crewed mission to Mars, which China has stated it aims to conduct as early as 2033, presents an even greater logistical challenge. The interplanetary ship required for such a journey will be far too massive to launch in a single flight. It will need to be assembled in Earth orbit from multiple modules launched separately. This task, which will involve lifting hundreds of tons of hardware into orbit, can only be accomplished with a fleet of reusable, super heavy-lift rockets like the Long March 9. As these missions venture farther from Earth, the global deep space network of tracking stations and ships will also need to be upgraded with larger antennas and more powerful transmitters to maintain communication and control over these historic voyages.

Summary

The evolution of China’s space launch infrastructure provides a clear and tangible narrative of the nation’s journey from a cautious, security-focused regional actor to an ambitious and capable global space power. The initial network of inland spaceports – Jiuquan, Taiyuan, and Xichang – was a product of Cold War imperatives, their remote locations offering security at the cost of logistical constraints that would define the limits of Chinese rocketry for half a century. Each of these foundational sites developed a unique specialization that continues to serve the national program: Jiuquan as the hallowed ground for human spaceflight, Taiyuan as the dedicated gateway to polar orbits for Earth observation, and Xichang as the workhorse for placing vital communications and navigation satellites into high orbits.

The 21st century has been defined by a strategic pivot to the coast and the sea. The development of the Wenchang Space Launch Site was not merely an upgrade but a fundamental prerequisite for China’s modern ambitions. By enabling the transport and launch of a new generation of heavy-lift rockets, Wenchang unlocked the physical capability to build a permanent space station, explore Mars, and plan for a human return to the Moon. Complementing this is the rise of maritime launch from the Eastern Aerospace Port, a flexible and resilient capability that enhances launch cadence and provides unparalleled access to any orbit. Woven into this evolving state-run ecosystem is a dynamic commercial space sector, spurred by government policy and now contributing its own innovations in launch technology. This comprehensive network of land and sea gateways, supported by a global chain of tracking stations and ships, forms the foundation for the full spectrum of China’s space activities. It is this robust and constantly expanding infrastructure that will carry the nation’s ambitions forward, from Low Earth Orbit to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.