Global Space Missions from 2025 to 2040

The Next Era of Exploration

The period stretching from 2025 to 2040 is set to become one of the most transformative in the history of space exploration. After decades focused primarily on low-Earth orbit and robotic scouts, the world’s space agencies are embarking on a new chapter defined by sustained human presence beyond our home planet. This era is characterized by a determined return to the Moon, not for fleeting visits but to build a lasting foothold that will serve as a deep-space proving ground. It is an era of methodical preparation for the next great leap: sending astronauts to Mars. It is also a time of unprecedented robotic discovery, with sophisticated probes venturing to the icy moons of the outer solar system, mysterious asteroids, and the veiled atmosphere of Venus.

This new age is being shaped by a complex interplay of international cooperation and intensifying competition. The roadmaps of the United States (NASA), Europe (ESA), Russia (Roscosmos), China (CNSA), Japan (JAXA), and a rising India (ISRO) reveal distinct strategies and ambitions. These plans are not unfolding in isolation; they are interconnected, sometimes collaborative, and often competitive, reflecting a broader geopolitical landscape. The technological advancements required, from reusable launch systems and nuclear-powered spacecraft to autonomous robotics and in-space resource utilization, are pushing the boundaries of what is possible. Together, these efforts are laying the foundation for humanity’s expansion into the cosmos, setting a course that will define our relationship with space for the remainder of the 21st century.

The Two Paths to the Moon

The return to the Moon is not a singular, unified effort. Instead, it is proceeding along two distinct and parallel tracks, each led by a different coalition of nations with its own architecture, philosophy, and set of strategic goals. These two programs, the U.S.-led Artemis Program and the China-led International Lunar Research Station, represent the primary frameworks through which humanity will establish its presence on the lunar surface in the coming decades.

The Artemis Program: A Global Alliance Returns to the Moon

NASA’s Artemis program is a U.S.-led international effort designed to establish a long-term, sustainable human presence at the Moon. The program’s architecture is built around several core components: the powerful Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, the Orion crew spacecraft for deep-space travel, a Human Landing System (HLS) to ferry astronauts to and from the lunar surface, and the Lunar Gateway, a small space station that will orbit the Moon.

The Artemis missions are planned as a series of increasingly complex flights. Following the uncrewed Artemis I test flight in 2022, Artemis II is scheduled for April 2026 and will carry a crew of four astronauts, including one from the Canadian Space Agency, on a flyby of the Moon, taking them farther into space than any humans have gone before. The first crewed landing, Artemis III, is planned for mid-2027 and will see two astronauts, including the first woman, touch down on the lunar south pole for a week-long stay.

The Lunar Gateway: Humanity’s Outpost in Deep Space

Central to the Artemis strategy is the Lunar Gateway, a modular outpost in a near-rectilinear halo orbit around the Moon. Unlike the International Space Station (ISS), the Gateway will not be permanently crewed but will serve as a staging point for lunar surface missions, a command center, a science laboratory, and a short-term habitat for astronauts. Its assembly will be carried out over several Artemis missions, with international partners providing key modules. The Gateway allows for a more flexible and sustainable approach to lunar exploration, enabling access to various locations on the Moon’s surface and serving as a testbed for technologies needed for future missions to Mars.

Artemis Missions Beyond the First Landing

The Artemis campaign extends well beyond the initial landing, with a clear schedule for building out lunar infrastructure through the late 2020s and into the 2030s.

• Artemis IV (late 2028): This mission will be the first flight of the more powerful SLS Block 1B rocket. Its primary objective is to deliver the International Habitation Module (I-Hab), a habitat built jointly by ESA and JAXA, to the Gateway. It will also include a crewed lunar landing.
• Artemis V (March 2030): This mission will further expand the Gateway by delivering ESA’s ESPRIT refueling and communications module and the Canadian-built Canadarm3 robotic arm. Artemis V will also mark the first crewed flight of Blue Origin’s Blue Moon lander and will deploy the Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), an unpressurized rover that astronauts will use to explore the lunar surface.

The International Partnership Model

The Artemis program is underpinned by the Artemis Accords, a non-binding set of principles guiding civil space exploration. As of October 2025, over 59 nations have signed the Accords, forming a broad international coalition. Key partners are making substantial hardware contributions:

• European Space Agency (ESA): ESA provides the critical European Service Module (ESM) for every Orion spacecraft, which supplies propulsion, power, and life support. For the Gateway, ESA is contributing the I-Hab module (with JAXA) and the ESPRIT module.
• Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA): Japan is a major partner in the Gateway, contributing to the I-Hab module and planning to provide logistics resupply using its new HTV-X cargo vehicle. JAXA is also developing a large, pressurized rover known as the Lunar Cruiser, intended for use on later Artemis missions. In exchange for these contributions, NASA will provide flight opportunities for Japanese astronauts to the lunar surface.
• Canadian Space Agency (CSA): Canada’s primary contribution is the Canadarm3, an advanced robotic arm for the Gateway. This contribution secured a seat for a Canadian astronaut on the Artemis II mission, who will be the first non-American to fly beyond low-Earth orbit.

The parallel development of Artemis and the ILRS points to the emergence of two distinct geopolitical and philosophical approaches to space exploration. The Artemis program is structured as a decentralized alliance, heavily reliant on commercial partners like SpaceX and Blue Origin for key systems such as landers, and is bound by a common set of principles outlined in the Accords. This model promotes a distributed development network. This contrasts with the more centralized, state-driven approach of the ILRS. This divergence mirrors terrestrial geopolitical alignments, effectively creating a bipolar structure for the future of lunar development. The competition is not merely about who lands first, but about which operating model – one based on open commercial partnerships or one that is state-led and strategically aligned – will become dominant in the next era of space exploration.

The International Lunar Research Station: A New Lunar Outpost

The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) is a joint initiative led by the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and Roscosmos, with the goal of establishing a comprehensive scientific research base at the Moon’s south pole. The project is envisioned as a complex of robotic and, eventually, crewed facilities on the lunar surface and in orbit, designed for long-term, autonomous operation.

Phased Construction Plan

The ILRS is being developed through a methodical, multi-phase roadmap.

• Phase 1 (Reconnaissance, through 2025): This initial phase focuses on surveying and site selection using data from recent and ongoing missions, such as China’s successful Chang’e 6 far-side sample return. The goal is to verify technologies for high-precision soft landings and to finalize the location for the base.
• Phase 2 (Construction, 2026-2035): This phase involves the launch of a series of foundational missions to build the station’s core infrastructure. China’s Chang’e 7 (2026) and Chang’e 8 (2028) missions will deliver key components, including experiments for in-situ resource utilization. These will be complemented by Russia’s planned Luna 26 orbiter and Luna 27 lander. The objective is to establish essential energy, communication, and research facilities by 2035.
• Phase 3 (Utilization, from 2036): With the basic infrastructure in place, this phase will focus on operating a fully functional research station. This includes conducting advanced scientific experiments and potentially hosting short-term human crews, with a crewed Chinese landing targeted for around 2030.

Key Technologies and Goals

The ILRS project is technologically ambitious. A central goal is to master in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), or living off the land, which includes experiments on Chang’e 8 to test 3D printing with lunar regolith. Perhaps the most significant technological goal is the joint development with Russia of a nuclear power plant on the Moon, intended to provide a continuous and reliable energy source for the base, overcoming the long, dark lunar nights.

The ILRS Partnership Model

While led by China and Russia, the ILRS is open to international partners. A growing list of countries has signed on, including Pakistan, Venezuela, South Africa, Egypt, Belarus, and Thailand. The partnership model allows for various levels of contribution. For example, Venezuela will provide ground station support for ILRS missions, while Pakistan is contributing a small rover for the Chang’e 8 mission. This approach allows China to build a coalition of partners by offering participation in a major exploration project.

While Russia is a founding partner of the ILRS, its near-term role appears more strategic than operational. The country’s lunar roadmap outlines contributions like the Luna series of landers and orbiters for the late 2020s and the ambitious development of a nuclear power source for the base in the 2030s. However, the failure of the Luna 25 mission in 2023 has raised questions about the current readiness of its landing technology. The most prominent proposed Russian contribution – the nuclear reactor – leverages a historical strength in space-based nuclear systems but is a long-term endeavor that does not address the immediate construction needs of the ILRS. This suggests that while Russia provides significant geopolitical weight and long-term technological aspirations to the project, China is positioned as the clear operational leader, driving the development and launch of the foundational missions.

Table 1: Major Lunar Program Comparison (Artemis vs. ILRS)

The Long Road to Mars

The renewed focus on the Moon is not an end in itself for many space agencies. It is a important, deliberate step on the path to the next frontier: the human exploration of Mars. The technologies, operational experience, and international partnerships being developed for lunar missions are explicitly designed to be extensible to the Red Planet.

NASA’s Architecture: From the Moon to the Red Planet

NASA’s approach to Mars exploration is guided by a strategy it calls “architecting from the right.” This means starting with the ultimate objective – a sustainable campaign of human missions to Mars – and working backward to identify and develop the necessary capabilities. This ensures that near-term investments, particularly in the Artemis program, are not dead ends but are foundational for future Mars missions.

The Moon serves as a high-fidelity proving ground for Mars. The challenges of operating on the lunar surface – including radiation, extreme temperatures, and communication delays – provide invaluable experience. NASA will use its lunar missions to test and validate critical systems for Mars, such as advanced spacesuits, long-duration surface habitats, closed-loop life support systems that recycle air and water, and techniques for utilizing local resources (ISRU) like water ice to produce propellant and breathable air.

In parallel, NASA’s robotic program continues to pave the way. The Perseverance rover is currently characterizing the geology of Jezero Crater and caching samples for a future return to Earth. The Mars Sample Return (MSR) campaign, a joint effort with ESA, is one of the most ambitious robotic missions ever conceived. It aims to launch a lander and ascent vehicle to Mars in the late 2020s to retrieve these samples and bring them back for analysis in terrestrial labs (the future of this mission is currently uncertain). Looking forward, NASA plans to shift toward a higher cadence of lower-cost, high-value robotic missions to continue scouting the Red Planet.

Europe’s Robotic Vanguard

The European Space Agency is a key partner in preparing for future Mars exploration, contributing unique and critical robotic capabilities.

• Mars Sample Return (MSR): ESA’s role in the MSR campaign is indispensable. The agency is responsible for developing the Earth Return Orbiter (ERO), a sophisticated spacecraft that will rendezvous with and capture the sample container in Mars orbit before flying it back to Earth. ESA is also building the Sample Transfer Arm, a highly dexterous robotic arm that will be mounted on the NASA lander to transfer the cached sample tubes into the Mars Ascent Vehicle.
• The Rosalind Franklin Rover: After several delays, ESA’s ExoMars rover, named Rosalind Franklin, is now scheduled to launch in 2028, with NASA providing the launch service and other key components. The rover’s primary scientific instrument is a drill capable of reaching two meters beneath the Martian surface. This is a key capability, as it will allow the rover to analyze soil samples that have been shielded from the harsh surface radiation, which can break down the organic molecules that might be signs of past life.

The timelines for the NASA/ESA and Chinese Mars sample return missions reveal a direct and high-stakes competition. Both efforts are scheduled to launch around 2028 and return samples to Earth in the early 2030s. The successful return of the first pristine Martian samples is more than a scientific triumph; it is a powerful demonstration of the end-to-end deep space capabilities – including precision landing, autonomous surface operations, ascent from another planet, orbital rendezvous, and interplanetary return – that are prerequisites for human missions. The agency that succeeds will not only gain immense scientific prestige but will also validate its technical architecture for the even greater challenge of landing astronauts on Mars. This makes the two sample return programs a direct proxy for the larger, long-term race to the Red Planet.

China’s Ambitious Martian Timeline

China is pursuing its own independent and ambitious path to Mars, running in parallel with its lunar program.

• Tianwen-3 Sample Return: CNSA is planning its own Mars sample return mission, Tianwen-3, for a launch around 2028 and a sample return to Earth by 2031. The mission will use a two-launch architecture: one rocket to send a lander and ascent vehicle, and a second to send an orbiter and Earth-return module. China is also exploring innovative sample collection techniques, including the potential use of a helicopter drone or a multi-legged crawling robot to gather diverse materials from beyond the immediate landing site.
• The Path to a Crewed Base: The Tianwen-3 mission is a key step in China’s long-term plan for Mars exploration, which is detailed in its “Roadmap to 2050.” This roadmap includes a crewed mission to Mars around 2050 and the eventual establishment of a permanent Mars research base, with some plans suggesting initial construction could begin as early as 2038.

While ESA is a major collaborator with NASA, its “Terrae Novae” exploration strategy also reveals a clear and persistent ambition for European autonomy. By developing its own unique capabilities, ESA ensures it is not merely a junior partner but a provider of essential technologies, giving it leverage and independence in future international exploration efforts. This is evident in its development of the Argonaut lander for independent access to the lunar surface and its contribution of critical, one-of-a-kind systems to the Mars Sample Return mission, such as the Earth Return Orbiter and the robotic arm. This strategic investment in its own capabilities allows Europe to secure leadership roles in specific areas of exploration while still participating in larger cooperative programs.

Exploring the Richness of the Solar System

Beyond the Moon and Mars, the next fifteen years will see a flotilla of robotic explorers venturing to other fascinating worlds across the solar system. These missions are designed to answer fundamental questions about the formation of planets, the potential for life in alien oceans, and the nature of the building blocks from which our solar system was made.

The Icy Moons of Jupiter: A Coordinated Investigation

The Jupiter system will be a hub of activity in the early 2030s, with two major missions arriving to study its intriguing icy moons.

• NASA’s Europa Clipper: Launched in October 2024, Europa Clipper will arrive at Jupiter in April 2030. It will not orbit Europa directly, due to the intense radiation environment, but will instead enter a long, looping orbit around Jupiter that allows for nearly 50 close flybys of the icy moon. During these flybys, its suite of instruments, including an ice-penetrating radar, will gather data to confirm the existence, depth, and saltiness of the subsurface ocean and to identify potential locations where plumes of water vapor may be erupting into space.
• ESA’s JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer): Launched in April 2023, JUICE will arrive in the Jovian system in July 2031. It conducts a broader tour, performing flybys of Europa, the heavily cratered Callisto, and the giant moon Ganymede. In 2034, JUICE will make history by becoming the first spacecraft to enter orbit around a moon in the outer solar system when it begins its detailed orbital tour of Ganymede, the only moon known to have its own magnetic field.

The simultaneous operation of these two missions will create a powerful scientific synergy. While Europa Clipper focuses on Europa’s potential habitability, JUICE will provide a comparative study of three distinct ocean worlds, placing Europa’s characteristics in a broader context. Their combined observations will provide a far more complete picture of the Jupiter system than either mission could achieve alone.

Titan’s Prebiotic World: The Dragonfly Mission

NASA is preparing one of its most innovative missions for the 2030s: Dragonfly. Scheduled to launch in July 2028 and arrive at Saturn’s moon Titan in 2034, Dragonfly is a dual-quadcopter, or octocopter, powered by a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG). Taking advantage of Titan’s low gravity and thick atmosphere, the rotorcraft will be able to fly between dozens of scientifically interesting sites across the moon’s surface.

Dragonfly’s primary science goal is to investigate prebiotic chemistry. Titan is a world rich in complex organic molecules, with a methane-based weather cycle of clouds, rain, and rivers that mirrors Earth’s water cycle. The mission will land at various locations, including impact craters where liquid water may have once mixed with surface organics, to sample and analyze materials. By studying how far organic chemistry has progressed in this unique environment, Dragonfly will search for the chemical building blocks of life and assess Titan’s habitability.

Guarding the Earth and Unlocking the Past: Asteroid and Comet Missions

Small bodies like asteroids and comets are remnants from the formation of the solar system and hold clues to its history. Several missions in the coming years will target these objects for both scientific study and planetary defense.

• JAXA’s MMX (Martian Moons eXploration): Launching in 2026, MMX will travel to the Martian system to study its two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. The primary goal is to determine their origin – whether they are captured asteroids or were formed from a giant impact on Mars. The spacecraft will land on Phobos, collect a sample of its surface material, and return it to Earth in 2031.
• China’s Tianwen-2: Launching around 2025, this ambitious mission will first travel to the near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamoʻoalewa, a quasi-satellite of Earth. It will attempt to collect a sample and return it before the main spacecraft continues on a journey to study a main-belt comet, 311P/PanSTARRS.
• ESA’s Hera: Following up on NASA’s DART mission, which successfully impacted the small moonlet Dimorphos in 2022, ESA’s Hera spacecraft will arrive at the Didymos binary asteroid system in early 2027. It conducts a detailed survey of the impact crater and the asteroid’s physical properties, providing important data to validate and refine asteroid deflection techniques for planetary defense.
• Ongoing Missions: NASA’s Lucy mission will continue its long tour of the Trojan asteroids, which share Jupiter’s orbit, with flybys scheduled through 2033. These missions are providing new insights into the diverse population of small bodies that formed the outer planets.

Table 2: Key Robotic Missions (2025–2040)

The Rise of New Explorers: India’s Space Odyssey

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is embarking on a remarkably ambitious and comprehensive roadmap that positions India to become a major, independent space power by 2040. Its plans span human spaceflight, advanced lunar exploration, interplanetary missions, and the construction of its own space station.

Gaganyaan: India’s Human Spaceflight Program

The cornerstone of India’s human exploration ambitions is the Gaganyaan mission. The program aims to develop the capability to send a crew of three astronauts to a 400-kilometer orbit for a three-day mission and return them safely to Earth. Following a series of uncrewed test flights, the first crewed Gaganyaan mission is targeted for early 2027. As a preparatory step, an Indian astronaut flew to the ISS aboard the commercial Axiom-4 mission to gain valuable experience in human spaceflight operations.

A Phased Approach to the Moon

ISRO is pursuing a multi-step lunar exploration program with the ultimate goal of landing an Indian astronaut on the Moon by 2040.

• Chandrayaan-4 (2027): This will be India’s first lunar sample return mission and its most complex lunar venture to date. The mission architecture is highly sophisticated, requiring two separate launches of India’s heavy-lift LVM3 rocket to place five distinct modules into Earth orbit. These modules will then perform an autonomous docking maneuver before the integrated spacecraft proceeds to the Moon. The mission will land at the lunar south pole, collect samples, and return them to Earth, demonstrating key technologies like docking, ascent from the lunar surface, and high-speed re-entry that are essential for future human missions.
• Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Following Chandrayaan-4, ISRO will collaborate with JAXA on the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX). This joint mission will use an Indian-built lander to deliver a large, 250 kg Japanese rover to the lunar south pole to prospect for water ice and other resources in permanently shadowed regions.
• Indian Astronaut on the Moon (by 2040): The experience and technologies validated by the Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan programs will culminate in a crewed lunar landing by 2040, a goal set by the Indian government.

Bharatiya Antariksha Station and Beyond

In parallel with its lunar and human spaceflight programs, ISRO is planning to build its own independent space station, the Bharatiya Antariksha Station. Construction is planned to begin with the launch of the first module in 2028, with the station expected to be fully operational by 2035. This orbiting platform will support long-duration scientific research and astronaut training. Beyond Earth orbit, ISRO is also developing the Shukrayaan Venus Orbiter Mission, planned for launch around 2028, to study the Venusian atmosphere and surface, as well as planning future missions to Mars.

India’s space roadmap for the 2025-2040 period is not incremental; it represents a compressed and accelerated strategy to achieve in two decades what took other space powers several. The concurrent pursuit of a human spaceflight program (Gaganyaan), a complex lunar sample return mission (Chandrayaan-4), an independent space station (Bharatiya Antariksha Station), and multiple interplanetary missions demonstrates a clear national strategy. By developing這些 advanced capabilities in parallel rather than sequentially, ISRO is positioning India to leapfrog the traditional, more linear development path followed by legacy space agencies. This ambitious approach is designed to rapidly build a comprehensive set of capabilities, establishing India as a fully-fledged, independent, top-tier space power by 2040.

Summary

The years between 2025 and 2040 will mark a significant shift in humanity’s journey into space. The world’s leading space agencies are moving beyond preliminary exploration to establish the foundations for a permanent, multi-planetary human presence. This era is defined by several overarching strategic goals that are shaping the missions and technologies of today and tomorrow.

The most visible trend is the determined return to the Moon, which is proceeding along two parallel tracks. The U.S.-led Artemis program, a broad international and commercial alliance, is focused on building the Lunar Gateway and establishing a sustainable presence as a direct stepping stone to Mars. In parallel, the China-led International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) aims to construct a comprehensive, state-driven scientific base at the lunar south pole, complete with advanced robotics and nuclear power. This dual-track approach reflects a new geopolitical reality in space, with distinct cooperative frameworks competing to define the future of lunar settlement.

This lunar activity is inextricably linked to the long-term goal of sending humans to Mars. The Moon is being used as a vital proving ground where agencies will test the technologies and operational strategies – from long-duration habitats to resource utilization – necessary for the far more arduous journey to the Red Planet. This methodical preparation is complemented by a series of ambitious robotic missions, including two competing Mars sample return campaigns that represent a high-stakes technological and scientific race between the U.S./Europe and China.

Simultaneously, a new wave of robotic explorers will venture across the solar system. Coordinated missions to Jupiter’s icy moons by NASA and ESA, an innovative rotorcraft to explore the prebiotic world of Titan, and multiple missions to asteroids and comets will seek to answer some of science’s most fundamental questions about habitability and the origins of our solar system. Finally, this era is marked by the accelerated ascent of new space powers, most notably India. With parallel programs in human spaceflight, lunar sample return, and space station construction, ISRO is on a rapid trajectory to join the top tier of spacefaring nations. Together, the technological advancements and international dynamics of this period are setting the stage for a future where humanity’s presence is no longer confined to Earth, but extends across multiple worlds.

Table 3: National Human Spaceflight Goals and Timelines