The history of human space exploration is filled with monumental achievements, and one of the most iconic of these milestones is the spacewalk, formally known as extravehicular activity (EVA). Since the dawn of space programs across the globe, spacewalks have been conducted to perform vital tasks, test new technologies, and support space missions. This article details the significant spacewalks conducted by various space agencies, the astronauts who undertook these missions, and the technical developments that have enabled humans to work in the vacuum of space.

Early Pioneers of Spacewalks: The Soviet Union and the United States

The First Spacewalk – Alexei Leonov (Soviet Union, 1965)

The Soviet Union achieved the first spacewalk on March 18, 1965, when cosmonaut Alexei Leonov stepped outside the spacecraft Voskhod 2 for 12 minutes. This moment marked a new era in space exploration, demonstrating that humans could survive and work outside the confines of a spacecraft. However, Leonov’s EVA was not without difficulty. Upon attempting to re-enter the capsule, Leonov found that his spacesuit had expanded due to the vacuum of space, forcing him to reduce the pressure in his suit to squeeze back into the spacecraft. Despite these challenges, his successful spacewalk was a monumental step for the Soviet space program.

The First American Spacewalk – Ed White (United States, 1965)

Just a few months later, on June 3, 1965, NASA astronaut Ed White became the first American to conduct a spacewalk during the Gemini 4 mission. White spent 23 minutes outside the spacecraft, attached by a tether and maneuvering with a hand-held oxygen jet. His spacewalk was smoother than Leonov’s but still demonstrated the complexities of working in space.

Gemini and Apollo Programs: Expanding EVA Capabilities

Gemini Program Spacewalks (1965–1966)

NASA’s Gemini program was designed to test and expand EVA capabilities in preparation for the Apollo moon landings. Over the course of the program, numerous spacewalks were conducted, refining techniques, tools, and spacesuit designs. Notably, Gene Cernan‘s spacewalk during Gemini 9 in June 1966 highlighted the physical challenges astronauts faced, such as overheating and the difficulty of maneuvering without handholds.

Apollo Program EVAs (1969–1972)

The Apollo program revolutionized EVA technology, as spacewalks became a core component of lunar exploration. During the Apollo missions, astronauts not only performed spacewalks in Earth orbit but also walked on the surface of the Moon.

The first spacewalk on another celestial body was carried out by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on July 20, 1969, during the historic Apollo 11 mission. They spent over two hours on the lunar surface, collecting samples, taking photographs, and deploying scientific equipment. Subsequent Apollo missions, such as Apollo 12, Apollo 14, and Apollo 17, involved increasingly complex EVAs, with astronauts staying on the lunar surface for extended periods.

Spacewalks During the Space Shuttle Era (1981–2011)

Early Space Shuttle EVAs

With the advent of the Space Shuttle program, spacewalks became integral to the construction, maintenance, and repair of spacecraft and satellites. The first EVA during the Shuttle era occurred on STS-6 in 1983, with astronauts Story Musgrave and Don Peterson conducting a spacewalk to test new spacesuits and EVA procedures.

Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Missions (1993–2009)

One of the most significant uses of spacewalks during the Space Shuttle era was the servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope. Starting in 1993, five servicing missions were conducted to repair and upgrade the telescope, with each mission involving multiple spacewalks. These EVAs included replacing faulty components, installing new instruments, and even correcting the telescope’s flawed optics.

Space Station Assembly EVAs

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, spacewalks were vital for the assembly of the International Space Station (ISS). Starting with STS-88 in 1998, astronauts began connecting the various modules of the ISS in orbit. Over the years, hundreds of spacewalks have been performed to assemble, maintain, and upgrade the ISS, making it the most active EVA site in history.

International Space Station (ISS) Era: Collaborative Spacewalks (1998–Present)

ISS Construction and Maintenance

Since the launch of the first module in 1998, the ISS has relied heavily on spacewalks for its assembly and maintenance. Astronauts from multiple space agencies, including NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), have conducted hundreds of EVAs to install new modules, repair systems, and upgrade equipment.

One of the longest series of spacewalks occurred between 2006 and 2007, when NASA and international astronauts completed over 10 EVAs to install critical trusses, solar arrays, and laboratories.

Long-Duration EVAs

In March 2001, NASA astronaut Susan Helms and Jim Voss set a record for the longest spacewalk at 8 hours and 56 minutes during the STS-102 mission. Their EVA involved the installation of the Destiny laboratory module on the ISS. Long-duration spacewalks have become more common as astronauts undertake complex tasks in the harsh environment of space.

Spacewalks for Scientific Experiments

In addition to construction and maintenance, spacewalks are now frequently used for scientific purposes. For instance, ESA astronaut Luca Parmitano conducted an EVA in 2019 to install the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, a particle physics detector designed to study cosmic rays.

China’s Space Program and Spacewalks

Shenzhou 7 Mission (2008)

China’s space program achieved its first spacewalk on September 27, 2008, when Zhai Zhigang ventured outside the Shenzhou 7 spacecraft. This was a pivotal moment for the China National Space Administration (CNSA) as it demonstrated China’s ability to perform extravehicular activities, a critical step toward the nation’s ambitions for human spaceflight and space station construction.

Tiangong and Recent Chinese Spacewalks (2021–Present)

With the launch of China’s Tiangong space station, the CNSA has continued to expand its EVA capabilities. In July 2021, astronauts from the Shenzhou 12 mission conducted a series of spacewalks to install equipment on the Tiangong space station. China is expected to conduct many more spacewalks as its space station continues to evolve.

Spacewalks by Other Nations

European Space Agency (ESA)

ESA astronauts have participated in numerous spacewalks, primarily aboard the ISS. In 2009, ESA astronaut Christer Fuglesang conducted an EVA to install new batteries on the station. European astronauts continue to contribute to international spacewalks, often supporting complex scientific missions and maintenance tasks.

Japanese Spacewalks

JAXA has played a pivotal role in spacewalks, contributing to the international space community through numerous EVAs, primarily aboard the ISS. One of the more notable Japanese spacewalks occurred in 2012 when astronaut Akihiko Hoshide performed a critical EVA to install a new power relay module. This particular spacewalk gained attention due to the complications encountered, as Hoshide and fellow astronaut Sunita Williams struggled to insert a bolt into a vital piece of equipment. After hours of effort, they managed to successfully complete the task, highlighting the challenges astronauts often face during EVAs.

Canadian Contributions to Spacewalks

Canada has also made significant contributions to spacewalk history, primarily through its role in building and maintaining robotic systems aboard the ISS, such as the Canadarm2. Canadian astronauts have participated in several key EVAs, showcasing Canada’s expertise in space robotics and human spaceflight.

The first Canadian astronaut to conduct a spacewalk was Chris Hadfield in 2001 during the STS-100 mission. Hadfield’s EVA involved the installation of Canadarm2 on the ISS, a significant achievement for Canada’s space program. He later gained fame as the commander of the ISS in 2013, when he captured the public’s imagination with his social media presence and educational videos from space. Hadfield’s spacewalk cemented Canada’s position as a key player in international space exploration.

In 2019, Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques became the fourth Canadian to perform a spacewalk. His EVA lasted for over six hours and involved the maintenance of the ISS’s robotic systems. These contributions highlight Canada’s ongoing participation in EVA operations, particularly related to robotic technology.

Polaris Dawn Spacewalk – September 12, 2024

On September 12, 2024, the Polaris Dawn mission, which is part of SpaceX’s Polaris Program, scheduled its spacewalk. This mission is notable for aiming to conduct the first private commercial EVA. The Polaris Dawn mission is led by billionaire Jared Isaacman, who previously funded the all-civilian Inspiration4 mission. The crew of Polaris Dawn intends to perform spacewalks at higher altitudes than any previous spacewalks, pushing the boundaries of private space exploration. This EVA represents the first time a privately funded mission will perform extravehicular activities outside the direct support of governmental space agencies.

Advances in Spacewalking Technology

Evolution of Spacesuits

One of the greatest challenges in performing spacewalks has been the development of reliable and functional spacesuits. From the early designs used by Leonov and White to the advanced extravehicular mobility units (EMUs) used on the ISS today, spacesuit technology has advanced significantly. These suits now provide greater protection, mobility, and life support systems, enabling astronauts to work for extended periods in the harsh vacuum of space.

NASA is currently developing next-generation suits for lunar exploration as part of the Artemis program. The new suits, known as the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU), will be designed to offer more flexibility, endurance, and protection against lunar dust, preparing astronauts for extended stays on the Moon.

Robotic Assistance in Spacewalks

In recent years, advancements in robotics have played a role in reducing the need for human spacewalks. Robotic systems like the Canadarm and its successors have been used for tasks such as moving cargo, installing modules, and even capturing spacecraft. NASA’s Robonaut, a humanoid robot designed to assist astronauts during spacewalks, represents the next step in combining human and robotic capabilities in space. These innovations aim to minimize the risks associated with EVAs while improving efficiency.

The Future of Spacewalks: Lunar and Martian EVAs

Artemis Program and Lunar EVAs

NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by the mid-2020s, will involve a new generation of lunar EVAs. Astronauts will use the aforementioned xEMU suits to explore the Moon’s surface, particularly the South Pole, where water ice has been detected. These suits will enable astronauts to remain on the lunar surface for extended periods and will offer better mobility compared to the Apollo-era spacesuits.

Lunar spacewalks will involve scientific exploration, resource extraction, and the construction of permanent infrastructure, such as habitats. The lessons learned from these missions will be critical for preparing future astronauts for spacewalks on Mars.

Mars Exploration EVAs

Looking even further ahead, space agencies around the world are preparing for the first human missions to Mars. Spacewalks on Mars will be vastly different from those conducted in orbit or on the Moon, as astronauts will need to contend with a thin atmosphere, extreme temperatures, and Martian dust. Advanced spacesuit technology, robust life support systems, and effective dust mitigation strategies will be essential for the success of Martian EVAs.

Mars exploration will likely involve long-duration EVAs to explore the planet’s surface, gather samples, and build infrastructure. Space agencies are developing new technologies, such as rovers and habitat modules, to support astronauts during their time on Mars.

Summary

From the first tentative steps taken by Alexei Leonov to the complex EVAs carried out aboard the International Space Station (ISS), spacewalks have been an essential component of human space exploration. These extravehicular activities have supported spacecraft construction, scientific research, and the maintenance of critical systems in orbit.

Astronauts from around the world, including those from the United States, Russia, China, Europe, Japan, and Canada, have contributed to this legacy. The evolution of spacesuit technology, the increasing role of robotics, and the development of next-generation suits for the Artemis missions all point to a bright future for spacewalks, particularly as humanity looks toward returning to the Moon and embarking on the exploration of Mars.

As space exploration progresses, spacewalks will continue to be a vital aspect of humanity’s ventures into space, enabling astronauts to perform tasks that are critical to the success of missions and the advancement of human presence beyond Earth. Siri Siri Siri turn on voice control turn on voice control

Spacewalks by Year and Country

1965

Soviet Union:

• 1 spacewalk (Alexei Leonov, Voskhod 2).

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Ed White, Gemini 4).

1966

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Gene Cernan, Gemini 9A; Richard Gordon, Gemini 11).

1967

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Buzz Aldrin, Gemini 12).

1969

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Apollo 11).

1971

Soviet Union:

• 1 spacewalk (Georgi Shonin & Nikolai Rukavishnikov, Soyuz 10).

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Alan Shepard & Edgar Mitchell, Apollo 14).

1972

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Charles Duke & John Young, Apollo 16; Harrison Schmitt & Eugene Cernan, Apollo 17).

1973

United States:

• 3 spacewalks (Skylab program).

1974

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Skylab program).

1977

Soviet Union:

• 2 spacewalks (Salyut 6 program).

1983

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Story Musgrave & Don Peterson, STS-6).

1984

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Bruce McCandless, STS-41B).

1985

United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Solar Maximum Mission repair).

1986

Soviet Union:

• 2 spacewalks (Vladimir Solovyov & Leonid Kizim, Salyut 7).

1987-1988

Soviet Union:

• 4 spacewalks (Mir space station).

1990

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Hubble Space Telescope mission).

1991-1994

Soviet Union (later Russia):

• 5 spacewalks (Mir space station).

1993-1999

United States:

• 8 spacewalks (Hubble Space Telescope servicing missions).

1995

Russia / United States:

• 2 spacewalks (Mir, Russian-American collaboration).

1998

United States / Russia:

• 3 spacewalks (ISS assembly).

2001

Canada:

• 1 spacewalk (Chris Hadfield, STS-100).

United States:

• 1 spacewalk (Susan Helms & Jim Voss, STS-102).

2003

China:

• No spacewalks yet; Shenzhou 5 mission had no EVA.

2004-2009

United States / Russia / ESA:

• Multiple spacewalks during ISS construction and maintenance.

China:

• 1 spacewalk (Zhai Zhigang, Shenzhou 7, 2008).

2010-2020

United States / Russia / ESA / Japan / Canada:

• Dozens of spacewalks for ISS maintenance, repair, and scientific experiments.

2021-Present

China:

• 3 spacewalks related to the Tiangong space station.

United States / Russia / ESA / Japan / Canada:

• Ongoing ISS maintenance and scientific EVAs.

Cumulative Spacewalks by Country (1965–2024)

United States:

• 176 spacewalks

Russia (including Soviet Union):

• 150 spacewalks

China:

• 4 spacewalks

European Space Agency (ESA):

• 12 spacewalks

Japan (JAXA):

• 4 spacewalks

Canada:

• 4 spacewalks

These numbers reflect the significant contributions from various countries to spacewalking activities since the dawn of human spaceflight. As the international space community grows and private sector involvement increases, the number of spacewalks will continue to rise, playing a critical role in humanity’s continued exploration of space.